Sulfur Nutrition Research Articles

Managing the pools of cellular redox buffers and the control of oxidative stress during the ontogeny of drought-exposed mungbean (Vigna radiata L.)—role of sulfur nutrition

Impacts of increasing environmental stresses (such as drought) on crop productivity can be sustainably minimized by optimizing mineral nutrients (such as sulfur, S). This study, based on a pot-culture experiment conducted in greenhouse condition, investigates S-mediated influence of drought stress (imposed at pre-flowering, flowering and pod-filling stages) on growth, photosynthesis and tolerance of mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) plants. Drought stress alone hampered photosynthesis functions, enhanced oxidative stress [measured in terms of H2O2; lipid peroxidation (LPO); electrolyte leakage (EL)] and decreased the pools of cellular redox buffers (namely ascorbate (AsA); glutathione (GSH)], and the overall plant growth (measured as leaf area and plant dry mass), maximally at flowering stage, followed by pre-flowering and pod-filling stages. Contrarily, S-supplementation to drought-affected plants (particularly at flowering stage) improved the growth- and photosynthesis-related parameters considerably. This may be ascribed to S-induced enhancements in the pools of reduced AsA and GSH, which jointly manage the balance between the production and scavenging of H2O2 and stabilize cell membrane by decreasing LPO and EL. It is inferred that alleviation of drought-caused oxidative stress depends largely on the status of AsA and GSH via S-application to drought-stressed V. radiata at an appropriate stage of plant growth, when this nutrient is maximally or efficiently utilized.

Yield and Nutrient Uptake by Soybean as Influenced by Phosphorus and Sulphur Nutrition in Typic Haplustept

Field experiment was conducted on Typic Haplustept at Instructional Farm of Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur during kharif 2012 to assess the effect of phosphorus and sulphur fertilization on yield and nutrient uptake by soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]. The experiment was laid out in factorial randomized block design with three replication and consisted four levels of phosphorus (0, 20, 40 and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 ) and four levels of sulphur (0, 15, 30 and 45 kg S ha-1 ). The results revealed that increasing the levels of phosphorus and sulphur significantly increased the grain and haulm yield over the control. The uptake of N, P, K, S, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn were significantly higher by grain and haulm over the control. The results of the experiment indicated that application of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 30 kg S ha-1 had recorded significant uptake of N, P, K, S, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn by grain and haulm of soybean, which also influenced the yield.

Effect of weed management and sulphur on nutrient content and uptake by weeds and soybean

A field experiment was undertaken to study the effect of weed management and sulphur nutrition on nutrient content and uptake by weeds and soybean during kharif 2009. The results revealed that application of two hoeing and weedings and imazethapyr 100 g/ha+ H&W at 40 DAS recorded maximum seed yield (1475 and 1395 kg/ha, respectively). Two H&W significantly reduced the weed growth and nutrient uptake by weeds, there by increased the nutrient (N, P and S) uptake by crop. Application of 40 kg S /ha significantly recorded the highest seed yield. This also increased N, P and S content and their uptake by soybean and weeds.

Homocysteine S-methyl transferase regulates sulforaphane concentration inBrassica oleraceavar.italica

Homocysteine S-methyl transferase (HMT, EC 2.1.1.10) is a ubiquitous enzyme in angiosperms that plays an important role in sulfur nutrition status. We used over-expression and RNA interference (RNAi) to study the regulatory function of BoHMT1 on sulforaphane concentration in broccoli. Agrobacterium-mediated transforrmation was used to produce 63 putatively transgenic broccoli plants; of these, 51 were positive for the gene construct by PCR selection, and 44 were confirmed by GUS staining. Overexpression of BoHMT1 caused a significant increase in the relative expression level of this gene, and five independent transgenic plants had expression levels >4-fold higher than in the control and they also showed an increase in sulforaphane concentration. Similarly, expression of an RNAi construct decreased the relative expression of BoHMT1, and four independent transgenic lines had expression levels >4-fold lower than in the control, and also showed a reduction in sulforaphane concentration. It is concluded that the BoHMT1 gene regulates sulforaphane concentration in broccoli and that there is a positive relationship between the expression level of the gene and the sulforaphane content.

Effects of proteome rebalancing and sulfur nutrition on the accumulation of methionine rich δ-zein in transgenic soybeans.

Expression of heterologous methionine-rich proteins to increase the overall sulfur amino acid content of soybean seeds has been only marginally successful, presumably due to low accumulation of transgenes in soybeans or due to gene silencing. Proteome rebalancing of seed proteins has been shown to promote the accumulation of foreign proteins. In this study, we have utilized RNAi technology to suppress the expression of the β-conglycinin, the abundant 7S seed storage proteins of soybean. Western blot and 2D-gel analysis revealed that β-conglycinin knockdown line (SAM) failed to accumulate the α′, α, and β-subunits of β-conglycinin. The proteome rebalanced SAM retained the overall protein and oil content similar to that of wild-type soybean. We also generated transgenic soybean lines expressing methionine-rich 11 kDa δ-zein under the control of either the glycinin or β-conglycinin promoter. The introgression of the 11 kDa δ-zein into β-conglycinin knockdown line did not enhance the accumulation of the 11 kDa δ-zein. However, when the same plants were grown in sulfur-rich medium, we observed 3- to 16-fold increased accumulation of the 11 kDa δ-zein. Transmission electron microscopy observation revealed that seeds grown in sulfur-rich medium contained numerous endoplasmic reticulum derived protein bodies. Our findings suggest that sulfur availability, not proteome rebalancing, is needed for high-level accumulation of heterologous methionine-rich proteins in soybean seeds.

Identification and functional characterization of a sulfate transporter induced by both sulfur starvation and mycorrhiza formation in Lotus japonicus.

Arbuscular mycorrhizas (AMs) are one of the most widespread symbioses in the world. They allow plants to receive mineral nutrients from the symbiotic fungus which in turn gets back up to 20% of plant carbon and completes its life cycle. Especially in low-nutrient conditions, AM fungi are capable of significantly improving plant phosphate and nitrogen acquisition, but fewer data are available about sulfur (S) nutrition. We focused on S metabolism in Lotus japonicus upon mycorrhizal colonization under sulfur starvation or repletion. We investigated both tissue sulfate concentrations and S-related gene expression, at cell-type or whole-organ level. Gene expression and sulfate tissue concentration showed that Rhizophagus irregularis colonization can improve plant S nutritional status under S starvation. A group 1 sulfate transporter, LjSultr1;2, induced by both S starvation and mycorrhiza formation, was identified. Its transcript was localized in arbuscule-containing cells, which was confirmed with a promoter-GUS assay, and its function was verified through phenotyping of TILLING mutants in nonmycorrhizal seedlings. LjSultr1;2 thus appears to encode a key protein involved in plant sulfate uptake. In contrast to phosphate transporters, a single gene, LjSultr1;2, seems to mediate both direct and symbiotic pathways of S uptake in L.japonicus.

Phosphorous and sulfur nutrition modulate antioxidant defenses in Myracrodruom urundeuva plants exposed to arsenic

We investigated if plant nutrition and antioxidant system activation are correlated features of arsenic (As)-tolerance in Myracrodruom urundeuva. Plants were grown for 120 days in substrates with 0, 10, 50 and 100mg Askg−1 and its As-tolerance was demonstrated. As-concentrations greater than 10mgkg−1 decreased plant growth and photosynthesis but did not induce plant death. Plants coupled alterations in stomatal conductance and transpiration to avoid As-deleterious effects to the photosynthetic apparatus. As-toxicity in M. urundeuva was due to lipid peroxidation induced by hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and gluthatione peroxidase (GPX) had central roles in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) scavenging in leaves, and their activities were linked to changes in redox potentials (ascorbate and glutathione pools). APX and GPX inactivation/degeneration led to H2O2 accumulation and related lipid peroxidation. Increased phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) concentrations in leaves were related to increased APX and GPX activities by stimulating increases in glutathione biosynthesis. We concluded that P and S nutrition were directly linked to As-tolerance in M. urundeuva plants by increasing antioxidant system activities.

Effect of Nitrogen and Sulphur Nutrition on Nitrogen assimilating Enzymes in Soybean Roots and Nodules

Soybean is an important legume crop with high protein content but deficient in sulphur (S) containing amino acids viz methionine and cysteine. Soybean protein quality can be improved by nutrient fertilization. Present studies report the effect of nitrogen (N) and S nutrition on nodulation, activities of ammonia assimilating enzymes and biochemical parameters in soybean roots and nodules. Nitrogen as urea @ 31.25 kg ha−1 and sulphur as gypsum @ 20 kg ha−1 alone significantly increased nodule number, fresh and dry weight per nodule, root length and nodular leghemoglobin content whereas total soluble proteins, free amino acids, glucose and sucrose content did not vary significantly in nodules and roots. Treatment of N or S significantly increased glutamate dehydrogenase activity in cytosol and bacteroidal fractions from 70 to 90 days after sowing whereas aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate synthase, glutamine synthetase and alanine aminotransferase activities showed non-significant variations in roots at different stages of development under the influence of N or S alone or their combination. Results suggested that N and S could improve nodulation and vegetative growth in soybean but ammonia assimilating enzyme activities in roots/nodules did not vary significantly.

English

The objective of the work was to evaluate the plant growth promotion of maize by thiosulfate-oxidizing bacteria possessing the tetrathionate intermediate (S4I) and/or paracoccus sulfur oxidation (PSO) pathway for thiosulfate oxidation. Halothiobacillus sp. possessing the S4I and PSO pathways for thiosulfate oxidation recorded the highest phosphate solubilization (480 µg ml-1), followed by other S4I pathway bearing bacteria (Microbacterium phyllosphaerae and Pandoraea sputorum). All the tested bacterial strains such as Halothiobacillus sp., Dyella thiooxydans, M. phyllosphaerae, Pandoraea sputorum, and Pandoraea sp., consumed the glucose and thiosulfate simultaneously, indicating that these organisms had a mixotrophic metabolism. Results of growth chamber study revealed that inoculation of D. thiooxydans and M. phyllosphaerae (both holding the S4I pathway) significantly enhanced the maize root length (73 and 67%, respectively), shoot length (27 and 31%), and shoot biomass (58 and 45%), along with the nutrient uptake of P, K, S, Mn, Ca, Cu and Na. Therefore, it was concluded that D. thiooxydans and M. phyllosphaerae possessing the S4I pathway are effective early plant growth promoting rhizobacteria for maize when compared with other bacteria possessing the S4I and PSO pathway for thiosulfate oxidation.   Key words: Maize, mixotrophic growth, paracoccus sulfur oxidation pathway, phosphate solubilization, tetrathionate intermediate pathway, sulfur nutrition.

Involvement of sulphur nutrition in modulating iron deficiency responses in photosynthetic organelles of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)

The aim of this study was to characterize the roles of sulphur (S) nutrition in modulating the responses to iron (Fe) deficiency in the photosynthetic organelles of oilseed rape. Eight-week-old plants grown hydroponically were fed with S-sufficient or S-deprived solution with or without Fe(III)-EDTA. Responses to four S and Fe combined treatments were analysed after 5 and 10 days. Leaf chlorosis was generated by either S- or Fe-deprivation, with a decrease in chlorophyll and carotenoid content. These negative effects were more severe in the absence of S. The expression of Fe²⁺ transporter (IRT1) and Fe(III) chelate reductase (FRO1) gene was induced for the first 5 days and decreased after 10 days in the S-deprived roots, but largely improved by S supply even in the absence of Fe. Lack of ferric chelate reducing activity in the Fe-deprived roots in the absence of S was largely improved by S supply. The activity of photosynthesis, RuBisCO and sucrose synthase was closely related to S status in leaves. Electron microscopic observation showed that the Fe-deficiency in the absence of S greatly resulted in a severe disorganisation of thylakoid lamellae with loss of grana. However, these impacts of Fe-deficiency were largely restored in the presence of S. The present results indicate that S nutrition has significant role in ameliorating the damages in photosynthetic apparatus caused by Fe-deficiency.

Iron, Manganese and Sulphur Uptake and Nutrients Availability in Sugarcane Based System in Subtropical India

A field experiment was conducted during 2007–2009 at Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow to assess the effect of iron, manganese and sulphur nutrition on growth, yield, quality, nutrient uptake and soil health in sugarcane based system. Eight treatments comprising combinations of iron, manganese and sulphur in different propositions were applied in sugarcane plant as well as ratoon crop subsequently. Among the various treatments, the highest sugar yield (9.25 ton/ha) was obtained with three foliar sprays of 1 % MnSO4 in sugarcane plant crop. However, sugarcane ratoon crop showed the highest sugar yield (10.73 ton/ha) with three foliar sprays of 1 % FeSO4 during tillering phase. Mean iron removal from sugarcane ratoon crop was higher (7.69 kg/ha) than plant crop (4.75 kg/ha). Sugarcane plant crop removed 1.25 kg/ha Mn as compared to 2.596 kg/ha removal by ratoon crop. However, the highest removal (3.67 kg/ha) of Mn from ratoon cane was observed under foliar application of 1 % MnSO4. It was observed that application of Fe, Mn or S increased the soil fertility status after completion of plant–ratoon crop cycle as compared to control (NPK alone). Thus, it was concluded that, sugarcane and sugar yield could be increased with three foliar applications of 1 % FeSO4/1 % MnSO4 during peak tillering phase (May) or through 60 kg S/ha (basal application).

Legume adaptation to sulfur deficiency revealed by comparing nutrient allocation and seed traits in Medicago truncatula

Reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions and the use of sulfur-free mineral fertilizers are decreasing soil sulfur levels and threaten the adequate fertilization of most crops. To provide knowledge regarding legume adaptation to sulfur restriction, we subjected Medicago truncatula, a model legume species, to sulfur deficiency at various developmental stages, and compared the yield, nutrient allocation and seed traits. This comparative analysis revealed that sulfur deficiency at the mid-vegetative stage decreased yield and altered the allocation of nitrogen and carbon to seeds, leading to reduced levels of major oligosaccharides in mature seeds, whose germination was dramatically affected. In contrast, during the reproductive period, sulfur deficiency had little influence on yield and nutrient allocation, but the seeds germinated slowly and were characterized by low levels of a biotinylated protein, a putative indicator of germination vigor that has not been previously related to sulfur nutrition. Significantly, plants deprived of sulfur at an intermediary stage (flowering) adapted well by remobilizing nutrients from source organs to seeds, ensuring adequate quantities of carbon and nitrogen in seeds. This efficient remobilization of photosynthates may be explained by vacuolar sulfate efflux to maintain leaf metabolism throughout reproductive growth, as suggested by transcript and metabolite profiling. The seeds from these plants, deprived of sulfur at the floral transition, contained normal levels of major oligosaccharides but their germination was delayed, consistent with low levels of sucrose and the glycolytic enzymes required to restart seed metabolism during imbibition. Overall, our findings provide an integrative view of the legume response to sulfur deficiency.

Metabolomic responses in grain, ear, and straw of winter wheat under increasing sulfur treatment

AbstractOnly little is known about the effect of a varying sulfur (S) nutrition on the pattern of metabolites in different organs of the ears of winter wheat (Tritcum aestivum L.) at final maturity. More insights into the metabolome as influenced by increasing S‐fertilizer rates would, however, be of particular interest in order to unravel S‐dependent physiological processes related to grain filling in wheat. We have therefore investigated the effects of varying sulfur nutrition on metabolite composition and distribution in the organs of the wheat ear and vegetative organs at final maturity. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry–based metabolite profiles revealed that S deficiency decreased the bulk of metabolites in the straw in favor of an increasing metabolite concentration in the husk, rachis, and grains. Surprisingly, only four out of 109 detectable metabolites, namely N‐acetyl glucosamine, lysine, ferulic acid, and β‐aminoisobutyric acid were most responsible for organ‐specific differences in the metabolite profiles. Under S‐deficient conditions, N‐acetyl‐glucosamine, lysine, and β‐aminoisobutyric were increasingly transferred from source tissues into the ears and grains.

Effect of sulphate nutrition on arsenic translocation and photosynthesis of rice seedlings

The effect of sulphate nutrition on arsenic (As) concentration, photosynthetic and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of rice was investigated in hydroponically grown rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L.), using three sulphate levels (1.8 μM, 0.7 mM, or 1.5 mM). The results showed that sulphate deficiency decreased As accumulation in root, but increased the translocation of As from root to shoot. Sulphate deficiency reduced maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), minimum fluorescence and electron transport rate (ETR) of a dark-adapted leaf. Compared with low sulphate treatments (1.8 μM), significant increases were observed in the parameters of rapid light curves, rETRmax and Ik of photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) of rice grown in the high sulphate treatments (1.5 mM) regardless of As additions. Therefore, an adequately high sulphate supply may result in less As translocation from root to shoot, and protecting the reaction pathways of PSI and PSII of rice seedlings grown in higher As-contaminated medium.

The Effect of Nitrogen and Sulphur Nutrition on the Yield and Content of Antioxidants in Broccoli / Vplyv Dusíkatej a Sírnatej Výživy na Úrodu a Obsah Antioxidantov v Brokolici

Abstract The small field experiment with broccoli (variety ‚Tiburon F1‘) was established in The Botanical Garden of Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra. In this experiment, we investigated the effect of four variants of nutrition on the broccoli yield, content of sulforaphane and vitamin C in broccoli florets. The first variant of nutrition was a control one - without application of fertilizers. The second one was fertilized at nitrogen level 200 kg.ha-1. The third one had level of nutriments N : S = 200 : 50 kg.ha-1 and fourth one N : S = 200 : 60 kg.ha-1. In each variant of nutrition, the yield of broccoli was significantly increased in comparison with the control variant. The highest yield of broccoli florets was reached in variant 4 (27.87 t.ha-1). The highest amount of sulforaphane was also determined in variant 4 - 50.93 mg.kg-1 of fresh matter. However, this value did not represent significant increase of sulforaphane content compared to the control variant. The highest content of vitamin C was determined in variant 2 (585.78 mg.kg-1 of fresh matter). In this variant, we achieved significant increase of vitamin C content in comparison with the control variant. Thus, by application of nitrogen and sulphur nutrition, we reached significant increase of broccoli yield compared to the control variant. At the same time, the applied nutrition assisted to enhanced accumulation of sulforaphane and vitamin C in broccoli florets

Changes in expression of proteins involved in alleviation of Fe-deficiency by sulfur nutrition in Brassica napus L.

In order to characterize the significance of sulfur (S) nutrition in protein expression under iron (Fe)-deficient conditions, gel-based proteomic analysis was performed with the leaves of Brassica napus exposed to S and Fe combined treatments: sufficient in S and Fe (+S/+Fe, control), sufficient S but Fe deprived (+S/−Fe), deprived S but sufficient Fe (−S/+Fe), and deprived S and Fe (−S/−Fe). The resulting data showed that 15 proteins were down-regulated due to production of oxidative damage as indicated by H2O2 and O2−1 localizations and due to leaf chlorosis in leaves in S-deprived leaves either in presence (−S/+Fe) or absence of Fe (−S/−Fe), whereas these down-regulated proteins were well expressed in the presence of S (+S/−Fe) compared to control (+S/+Fe). In addition, two proteins were up-regulated under S-deprived condition in presence (−S/+Fe) and absence of (−S/−Fe) Fe. The functional classification of these identified proteins was estimated that 40 % of the proteins belong to chloroplast precursor, and rest of the proteins belongs to hypothetical proteins, RNA binding, secondary metabolism and unknown proteins. On the other hand, five protein spots from S deprived (−S/+Fe) and ten spots from Fe deprived (−S/−Fe) conditions were absent, whereas they were well expressed in presence of S (+S/−Fe) compared to control plants (+S/+Fe). These results suggest that sulfur nutrition plays an important role in alleviating protein damage in Fe-deficient plants and adaptation to Fe-deficiency in oilseed rape.

Volatile Organic Compounds: A Bacterial Contribution to Plant Sulfur Nutrition

In the decade since it was first reported that volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by bacteria can promote plant growth, it has become clear that VOC-mediated interactions between bacteria and plants are widespread (reviewed in [Bailly and Weisskopf, 2012][1]). The effects of VOCs on plants

Dimethyl disulfide produced by the naturally associated bacterium bacillus sp B55 promotes Nicotiana attenuata growth by enhancing sulfur nutrition.

Bacillus sp B55, a bacterium naturally associated with Nicotiana attenuata roots, promotes growth and survival of wild-type and, particularly, ethylene (ET)-insensitive (35)S-ethylene response1 (etr1) N. attenuata plants, which heterologously express the mutant Arabidopsis thaliana receptor ETR1-1. We found that the volatile organic compound (VOC) blend emitted by B55 promotes seedling growth, which is dominated by the S-containing compound dimethyl disulfide (DMDS). DMDS was depleted from the headspace during cocultivation with seedlings in bipartite Petri dishes, and (35)S was assimilated from the bacterial VOC bouquet and incorporated into plant proteins. In wild-type and (35)S-etr1 seedlings grown under different sulfate (SO(4)(-2)) supply conditions, exposure to synthetic DMDS led to genotype-dependent plant growth promotion effects. For the wild type, only S-starved seedlings benefited from DMDS exposure. By contrast, growth of (35)S-etr1 seedlings, which we demonstrate to have an unregulated S metabolism, increased at all SO(4)(-2) supply rates. Exposure to B55 VOCs and DMDS rescued many of the growth phenotypes exhibited by ET-insensitive plants, including the lack of root hairs, poor lateral root growth, and low chlorophyll content. DMDS supplementation significantly reduced the expression of S assimilation genes, as well as Met biosynthesis and recycling. We conclude that DMDS by B55 production is a plant growth promotion mechanism that likely enhances the availability of reduced S, which is particularly beneficial for wild-type plants growing in S-deficient soils and for (35)S-etr1 plants due to their impaired S uptake/assimilation/metabolism.

Sulphur application improves the growth, seed yield and oil quality of canola

Sulphur (S) nutrition is very important for harvesting potential seed and oil yield of rapeseed. This study evaluated response of foliage applied thiourea on the performance of two canola cultivars Shiralee and Dunkeld. Sulphur was applied to soil (40 kg ha−1) or foliage (500 and 1,000 mg L−1) at rosette, bud initiation and flowering stages using elemental S or thiourea as source, respectively; no S application was taken as control. Among all the treatments, soil application of S improved the crop growth, yield and oil quality in both cultivars and was followed by foliar application of thiourea at 1,000 mg L−1 compared with no application. Soil applied S and foliar thiourea (1,000 mg L−1) delayed the flowering and maturity. Soil and foliar applied S significantly improved leaf area index, crop growth rate, net assimilation rate and chlorophyll contents. Plant height, number of branches, siliqua per plant, seed number per siliqua, 1,000-seed weight, biological and seed yield were also increased by soil applied S and foliage applied thiourea (1,000 mg L−1). Nonetheless, improvement in harvest index, seed oil, protein and glucosinolate contents was only observed from foliage applied thiourea (1,000 mg L−1). Response of cv. Shiralee to sulphur application was better than cv. Dunkeld. In conclusion, foliar applied thiourea (1,000 mg L−1) can have potential to improve growth, yield and oil quality in canola and can be economically viable and attractive alternative source.

Mineral stress affects the cell wall composition of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) callus

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most economically important fruit crops in the world. Deficit in nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur nutrition impairs essential metabolic pathways. The influence of mineral stress in the composition of the plant cell wall (CW) has received residual attention. Using grapevine callus as a model system, 6 weeks deficiency of those elements caused a significant decrease in growth. Callus CWs were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), by quantification of CW components and by immunolocalization of CW epitopes with monoclonal antibodies. PCA analysis of FT-IR data suggested changes in the main components of the CW in response to individual mineral stress. Decreased cellulose, modifications in pectin methyl esterification and increase of structural proteins were among the events disclosed by FT-IR analysis. Chemical analyses supported some of the assumptions and further disclosed an increase in lignin content under nitrogen deficiency, suggesting a compensation of cellulose by lignin. Moreover, polysaccharides of callus under mineral deficiency showed to be more tightly bonded to the CW, probably due to a more extensive cross-linking of the cellulose–hemicellulose network. Our work showed that mineral stress impacts the CW at different extents according to the withdrawn mineral element, and that the modifications in a given CW component are compensated by the synthesis and/or alternative linking between polymers. The overall results here described for the first time pinpoint the CW of Vitis callus different strategies to overcome mineral stress, depending on how essential they are to cell growth and plant development.