Sulphur Emission Control Areas Research Articles

Integrated maritime fuel management with stochastic fuel prices and new emission regulations

Maritime fuel management (MFM) controls the procurement and consumption of the fuels used on board and therefore manages one of the most important cost drivers in the shipping industry. At the operational level, a shipping company needs to manage its fuel consumption by making optimal routing and speed decisions for each voyage. But since fuel prices are highly volatile, a shipping company sometimes also tactically procures fuel in the forward market to control risk and cost volatility. From an operations research perspective, it is customary to think of tactical and operational decisions as tightly linked. However, the existing literature on MFM normally focuses on only one of these two levels, rather than taking an integrated point of view. This is in line with how shipping companies operate; tactical and operational fuel management decisions are made in isolation. We develop a stochastic programming model involving both tactical and operational decisions in MFM in order to minimise the total expected fuel costs, controlled for financial risk, within a planning period. This paper points out that after the latest regulation of the Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECA) came into force in 2015, an integration of the tactical and operational levels in MFM has become important for shipping companies whose business deals with SECA. The results of the computational study show that isolated decision making on either tactical or operational level in MFM will lead to various problems. Nevertheless, the most severe consequence occurs when tactical decisions are made in isolation.

A preliminary evaluation of the impact of Sulphur Emissions Control Area in the Baltic Sea on air quality in port cities. Case port – the city of Gdańsk

The purpose of this research is to attempt to evaluate the extent, to which technical standards related to marine fuels and thereby also sulphur dioxide (SO2) content in engine exhausts from vessels operating on the Baltic Sea have been effective in curbing the negative impact of marine shipping on air quality, in particular in port cities. Marine environment protection is governed by the provisions of the MARPOL 73/78 International Convention, which Poland ratified as a party. Different areas of concern for marine shipping have been regulated in separate Appendices to the Convention. The first step was to introduce severe restrictions on SOx emissions in view of the fact that heavy marine fuel is the lowest-quality kerosene-derived fuel with a large content of sulphur. A gradual process was put in place to reduce its content in marine fuel. As a consequence, the world’s marine areas were divided into sulphur emission control areas (also known as SECA) and other areas. In Europe, these areas include the entire Baltic Sea and large portions of the North Sea. Another important technical and economic measure was to lower the limit of sulphur content in marine fuel to 0.1% in all SECA areas, with the limits remaining unchanged in the other areas. Two dates were of key importance for the investigation: 2010, when the reduction in sulphur content of marine fuels from 1.5% to 1% was mandated, and 2015, when the standard for sulphur content was dramatically lowered to 0.1%. In the first stage, the concentration of sulphur dioxide was researched as one of the factors preceding air contamination with suspended particles in the Gdańsk - Gdynia area in the period from 2005 to 2016, as investigated by four automatic reference measurement stations in the ARMAAG network (hourly data) located in the immediate vicinity of the sea (AM4, AM5, AM6 and AM8). The research concerned the arrival of high concentrations of sulphur blown in from the sea by the wind. Another key factor was the secondary data on the number of ships, in the form of monthly series, starting from 2007. The analysis was performed in stages. In the first stage, the quality of measurement and secondary data were evaluated using a unique data quality assessment method. Further on, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) models were constructed to identify spatial correlations between SO2 concentration distributions, which were used later as a basis on which to determine synthetic measures of average hourly concentrations for the entire agglomeration area. Subsequently, the impact of the SO2 source (influx from the Baltic Sea to the agglomeration areas) was gauged separately for each individual station. The PCA models constructed on the basis of hourly data corroborated the synthetic measures as correct, making it possible to identify the similarity of concentration distributions across the investigated stations. Multi-Dimensional Regression Models and Generalized Regression Models (GRM) have made it possible to identify the period, in which the concentration of sulphur dioxide dropped steadily (from 2010 to 2016), as well as the seasonal impact of variation in SO2 concentration and the number of ships. The hourly data was converted to average monthly, quarterly and annual values, depending on the mathematical model and purpose of research.

Towards EU 2020: An Outlook of SECA Regulations Implementation in the BSR

AbstractThe clean shipping concept emerged in a bid to make maritime transportation green and environmentally friendly. This mandate is being accomplished through improved conducts, actions and technology in the maritime industry. One of such measures was the creation of the Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECA) in 2005 and 2012 to reduce the rate of sulphur emissions from shipping. Sustainable growth—an EU 2020 priority—is strategically linked to the SECA regulation in that it promotes resource efficiency, greener environment and a competitive economy.Thus, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and, as adopted by the European Parliament (EP), SECA regulation stipulated that from 2015 all ships in SECA are under the obligation to use low sulphur marine fuel that must not exceed 0.1% (IMO, 2011). This regulation has incited rigorous arguments on the economic disadvantage it would subject affected maritime stakeholders who are made to comply with stringent regulation their counterparts in non-SECA are not subjected to.Two years of 0.1% sulphur regulations have witnessed many changes in the maritime industry and most of the first responses were realised with vessels that ply along the Baltic Sea. This work presents an account of European maritime industry’s approaches towards SECA regulations and the stakeholders’ thoughts on the economic impact of SECA. This contribution brings a clearer picture to the status quo as well as highlighting a needed future focus.

Impact of aromatic concentration in marine fuels on particle emissions

The fuel sulfur content in marine fuels has been regulated in Sulfur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) since January 2015. However, other fuel characteristics are also believed to have an impact on particle emissions, particularly on the number of particles emitted. This study investigates the impact of the content of aromatics in fuel. To achieve fuel blends with concentrations of aromatics similar to those found in marine fuel oils, i.e. 20%–30% by volume (%vol.), normal diesel oil (4%–5% vol. aromatics) is doped with a mixture of aromatics. Emission measurements are conducted in test-bed engine facilities and particle emissions over a wide size range are analyzed. Results show a decreased number of particles emitted (or not change) with an increase in the aromatic concentration in fuel. This is because there is a reduction in the cetane number of the fuel with an increased aromatic content, which effects the combustion process and results in decreased particle formation. However, when ignition improver is used to increase the cetane number, particle emissions remain at a lower level than for normal diesel oil; thereby emphasizing the presence of other factors in the formation of particles.

A chemometric investigation of aromatic emission profiles from a marine engine in comparison with residential wood combustion and road traffic: Implications for source apportionment inside and outside sulphur emission control areas

Ship emissions are known to cause severe impacts on human health, but are less restricted than land-based emissions. A regulation to improve air quality in coastal regions and frequented waterways is the limitation of fuel sulphur content to 0.1% in sulphur emission control areas (SECAs), which has caused a switch from heavy fuel oil (HFO) towards diesel-like marine gas oil (MGO) or marine diesel oil (MDO). The fraction of aromatic organic vapours in the exhaust from a marine engine, operating on HFO and MGO, was investigated by resonance-enhanced multi-photon ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (REMPI-TOFMS). MGO with fuel sulphur content (FSC) below 0.1% and HFO with an average FSC of 2.7% denote representative marine fuels inside and outside SECAs, respectively. The obtained emission spectra were combined with data of previous REMPI-TOFMS studies of combustion engines and wood combustion in statistical analyses to derive marker substances for ship emissions inside and outside SECAs. A diagnostic ratio of C2-naphthalenes to methyl-naphthalenes was found to hold for a good discriminator between ship emissions on the one hand and road traffic and wood combustion on the other hand. Furthermore, random REMPI spectra from all emission sources were mixed with different proportions in a simulation to create a model based on partial least square (PLS) regression for the prediction of ship contribution to aromatic organic vapours. We point out that in particular PAHs with higher degree of alkylation are significant markers for primary ship emissions which may support source apportionment studies inside and outside SECAs to assess the benefits of fuel sulphur content regulation on air quality.

Installation and characteristics of urea-selective catalytic reduction systems for nitrogen oxide reduction in marine diesel engine

Since 1 January 2016, the International Maritime Organization Tier III regulations concerning nitrogen oxides took effect. International Maritime Organization Tier III targets new ships weighing over 400 ton engaged in international sailing, especially those entering and leaving emission control areas. The number of emission control areas, including sulfur emission control areas, is forecasted to increase in Japanese seas and elsewhere; thus, all new ships intended for international sailing purposes must consider appropriate responses to these regulations. Currently, urea-selective catalytic reduction systems are frequently used to satisfy International Maritime Organization Tier III regulations in marine diesel engines, but these decrease ship engine performance due to increased engine exhaust gas pressure. Thus, following a study by Ryu et al., this research compares engine exhaust gas pressures at different engine loads (25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, and 50%) with the application of a thinner metal catalyst to a selective catalytic reduction reactor; metal catalyst thickness was reduced by 30% or more from the original sheet thickness of 0.1 t. Furthermore, 40% urea was injected into the exhaust gas line to conduct a comparative analysis of nitrogen oxide reduction. By changing the metal catalyst’s sheet thickness, nitrogen oxide was reduced by more than 80%, while the engine exhaust gas pressure was lowered by approximately 13%–28%.

The implications of the new sulphur limits on the European Ro-Ro sector

In an effort to reduce the environmental impacts of maritime transportation, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) designated special Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) where ships are required to use low-sulphur fuel. In January 2015, the sulphur limit within SECAs was lowered to 0.1%, which can only be achieved if vessels are using pricier ultra-low sulphur fuel, or invest in abatement technologies. The increased operating costs borne by Ro-Ro operators in SECAs due to the stricter limits can result in the shutting down of some routes and a redistribution of cargo flows with land-based alternatives. The exact repercussions of the new sulphur limits are difficult to identify in the wake of significant recent reductions of the fuel prices for both low-sulphur and heavy fuel oil. This paper presents a modal split model that estimates modal shifts vis-a-vis competing maritime and land-based modes available to shippers. This allows examining the implications of the recent low prices to modal choice, and the influence a potential increase in fuel prices may have. The model is applied to seven routes affected by the regulation based on data from a leading European Ro-Ro operator. Sensitivity analyses on market share data, cargo values, freight rates, and haulers rates are conducted. Emissions inventories are constructed to assess the environmental efficacy of the SECA regulation. The novelty of the proposed model lies in the examination of the ex-post implications of shutting down a service and the redistribution of transport. Recommendations to mitigate and reverse the negative side-effects of such environmental legislation are proposed.

Laboratory station for research of the innovative dry method of exhaust gas desulfurization for an engine powered with residual fuel

Development of technology for exhaust gas desulfurization in marine engines using the dry method is, nowadays, a priority due to the calendar of introducing restrictions by the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 2012/33/EU of 21 November 2012. According to this directive, starting from 1 January 2015, inside the SECA (Sulphur Emission Control Area) the maximum sulfur content of marine fuels used on territorial seas is 0.1% per weight unit. But at the same time the directive allows for the use of exhaust gas desulfurization plant operating in a closed system. The ship equipped with the system will be able to use fuels with a high sulfur content, which will then be removed from the exhaust gas through an applied adsorber, and the reacted adsorbent is received by specialized services stationed in harbors. The International Maritime Organization has set a limit value of the emissions of sulfur oxides in exhaust gases of marine engines at 6 g/kWh (International Convention for the Prevention of Sea Pollution from Ships MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI, Regulation 14). Contemporary methods of exhaust gas desulfurization in marine engines are all expensive methods (4-5 million euro). This is, among other reasons, due to the limited market audience, but primarily due to the monop-olized position of manufacturers offering fabrication and assembly of this type of marine ship installations. Proposed as part of a research project financed by the Regional Fund for Environmental Protection and Maritime Economy in Gdansk, the dry method (adsorption) reducing SOx emissions in exhaust gases of marine engines, is an alternative, and a definitely cheaper and therefore competitive solution, compared to the wet methods (absorption), which are currently the most widely used in marine scrubber installations. Importantly, as confirmed by the results of the study, the proposed dry method, in addition to the effective reduction of sulfur oxides, also reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. The paper presents the configuration and measurement capabilities of the test station built under the project, as well as the representative results of the investigations so far. During the exhaust gas desulfurization test a sodium adsorbent (sodium bicarbonate) and its modifications were used in the process of mechanical, chemical, and thermal activation. Two physicochemical processes were studied during the development of the method: • of adsorbent’s reaction on the chemical emission of the exhaust gas – the effectiveness of SOx and NOx compound removal, with various structural solutions in the process reactor, • the impact of the adsorber on the emission source of sulfur oxides, that is, on the compression-ignition engine. Therefore, one of the priorities of the project, with a utilitarian significance, was to determine the impact of the inclusion of the desulfurization installation in the exhaust gas system on the energy ratios of the engine.

Economic assessment of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a marine fuel for CO2 carriers compared to marine gas oil (MGO)

CO2 carriers are considered as a solution for CO2 transport as a part of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and ship fuel cost is an important parameter impacting total cost of CO2 shipping. Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is a traditional marine fuel but alternative marine fuels such as MGO and LNG shall be considered for future researches on CO2 shipping because low sulphur content fuel is required in sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) from January 2015. However, LNG has not been seriously considered as a marine fuel for CO2 carriers and its economic feasibility has not been studied so far. This paper assesses economics of LNG fueled CO2 carriers based on a CO2 shipping scenario in North Sea and fuel price in June 2016. Parameter studies are conducted to understand the influence of important parameters such as a marine fuel price, LNG fuel system cost, and small LNG distribution cost. The results show that LNG fueled CO2 carriers are more cost-effective than CO2 carriers utilizing MGO based on fuel price in June 2016 and when crude oil price is higher than approximately 30–50 USD/bbl. Furthermore, technology development on LNG fuel system and bunkering infrastructure could strengthen the competitiveness of LNG as a marine fuel for CO2 carriers.

Drivers for environmental technologies selection in the shipping industry: a case study of the North European Sulphur Emission Control Area

This study tackles the question: how do new air pollution regulations interact with other eco-innovation drivers in the adoption of environmental technologies in the shipping industry? In the North Sea, Baltic Sea, and the English Channel, short sea shipping is subject to strict requirements on sulphur emissions by the European Union and the International Maritime Organization after the creation of a Sulphur Emission Control Area. This regulation benefits from market conditions which slightly push the shipping companies to embrace environmental technologies when operational costs increase due to expenses such as increasing fuel prices. Meanwhile, voluntary initiatives like participating in eco-labelling schemes can motivate eco-innovations, especially cleaner-processes. The research contributes to the ongoing debate about eco-innovation characteristics in different industrial sectors, but more specifically, it moves forward the proposition of dynamic interactions between regulation, technology, business and markets, which modify the dominant focus on market pull and technological push.

Drivers for environmental technologies selection in the shipping industry: a case study of the North European Sulphur Emission Control Area

Drivers for environmental technologies selection in the shipping industry: a case study of the North European Sulphur Emission Control Area

Costs and benefits of low-sulphur fuel standard for Baltic Sea shipping

The maximum allowable fuel sulphur content for shipping in the Baltic Sea dropped from 1%S to 0.1%S in 1 January 2015. We provide a cost-benefit analysis of the sulphur reduction policy in the Baltic Sea Sulphur Emission Control Area (SECA). We calculated the abatement costs based on shipowners' optimal decision-making in choosing between low-sulphur fuel and a sulphur scrubber, and the benefits were modelled through a high-resolution impact pathway analysis, which took into account the formation and dispersion of the emissions, and considered the positive health impacts resulting from lowered ambient PM2.5 concentrations. Our basic result indicates that for the Baltic Sea only, the latest sulphur regulation is not cost-effective. The expected annual cost is roughly €465 M and benefit 2200 saved Disability Adjusted Life-Years (DALYs) or monetized €105 M. Based on our sensitivity analysis, the benefits yet have a potential to exceed the costs. The analysis neither takes into account the acidifying impact of sulphur nor the impact North Sea shipping has on the cost-benefit ratio. Lastly, a similar approach is found highly recommendable to study the implications of the upcoming Tier III NOx standard for shipping.

Impact of the 0.1% fuel sulfur content limit in SECA on particle and gaseous emissions from marine vessels

Emissions were measured on-board a ship in the Baltic Sea, which is a sulfur emission control area (SECA), before and after the implementation of the strict fuel sulfur content (FSC) limit of 0.1 m/m% S on the 1st of January 2015. Prior to January 2015, the ship used a heavy fuel oil (HFO) but switched to a low-sulfur residual marine fuel oil (RMB30) after the implementation of the new FSC limit. The emitted particulate matter (PM) was measured in terms of mass, number, size distribution, volatility, elemental composition, content of organics, black and elemental carbon, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), microstructure and micro-composition, along with the gaseous emissions at different operating conditions. The fuel change reduced emissions of PM mass up to 67%. The number of particles emitted remained unchanged and were dominated by nanoparticles. Furthermore, the fuel change resulted in an 80% reduction of SO2 emissions and decreased emissions of total volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The emissions of both monoaromatic and lighter polyaromatic hydrocarbon compounds increased with RMB30, while the heavy, PM-bound PAH species that belong to the carcinogenic PAH family were reduced. Emissions of BC remained similar between the two fuels. This study indicates that the use of low-sulfur residual marine fuel oil is a way to comply with the new FSC regulation and will reduce the anthropogenic load of SO2 emissions and secondary PM formed from SO2. Emissions of primary particles, however, remain unchanged and do not decrease as much as would be expected if distilled fuel was used. This applies both to the number of particles emitted and some toxic components, such as heavy metals, PAHs or elemental carbon (EC). The micro-composition analyses showed that the soot particles emitted from RMB30 combustion often do not have any trace of sulfur compared with particles from HFO combustion, which always have a sulfur content over 1%m/m. The soot sulfur content can impact aging and cloud condensation properties. This study is an in-depth comparison of the impact of these two fuels on the emissions of particles as well as their composition and microstructure. To evaluate the impact of the use of low-sulfur residual marine fuel oils on emissions from ships, additional research is needed to investigate the varied fuel types and compositions as well as the wide range of engine conditions and properties.

Attribution of atmospheric sulfur dioxide over the English Channel to dimethyl sulfide and changing ship emissions

Abstract. Atmospheric sulfur dioxide (SO2) was measured continuously from the Penlee Point Atmospheric Observatory (PPAO) near Plymouth, United Kingdom, between May 2014 and November 2015. This coastal site is exposed to marine air across a wide wind sector. The predominant southwesterly winds carry relatively clean background Atlantic air. In contrast, air from the southeast is heavily influenced by exhaust plumes from ships in the English Channel as well as near Plymouth Sound. A new International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulation came into force in January 2015 to reduce the maximum allowed sulfur content in ships' fuel 10-fold in sulfur emission control areas such as the English Channel. Our observations suggest a 3-fold reduction in ship-emitted SO2 from 2014 to 2015. Apparent fuel sulfur content calculated from coincidental SO2 and carbon dioxide (CO2) peaks from local ship plumes show a high level of compliance to the IMO regulation (> 95 %) in both years (∼ 70 % of ships in 2014 were already emitting at levels below the 2015 cap). Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is an important source of atmospheric SO2 even in this semi-polluted region. The relative contribution of DMS oxidation to the SO2 burden over the English Channel increased from about one-third in 2014 to about one-half in 2015 due to the reduction in ship sulfur emissions. Our diel analysis suggests that SO2 is removed from the marine atmospheric boundary layer in about half a day, with dry deposition to the ocean accounting for a quarter of the total loss.

North–South container port competition in Europe: The effect of changing environmental policy

This article examines environmental policy impacts on competition between the European container ports in the Hamburg–Le Havre range on the one hand and the Mediterranean ports on the other. More in particular, two scenarios are considered: the internalisation of external cost on the European hinterland and the establishment of a Sulphur Emission Control Area (SECA) in the North Sea region. Geographically, applications are made for container loops from both Asia and South America to Europe. A total chain model is applied that incorporates the maritime, port and hinterland legs of the supply chain. The calculations show that the effects of either policy option would not significantly impact on the theoretical captive hinterland of respectively the Hamburg–Le Havre range and the ports of the Mediterranean, as the effects measured are smaller than the error margin of the model applied. Additionally, it is found that the impacts of the two policy options on competition between ports in the Hamburg–Le Havre range and the Mediterranean ports would differ for the two container loops considered.

Contribution of ship emissions to the concentration and deposition of air pollutants in Europe

Abstract. Emissions from the marine transport sector are one of the least-regulated anthropogenic emission sources and contribute significantly to air pollution. Although strict limits were introduced recently for the maximum sulfur content in marine fuels in the SECAs (sulfur emission control areas) and in EU ports, sulfur emissions outside the SECAs and emissions of other components in all European maritime areas have continued to increase in the last two decades. We have used the air quality model CAMx (Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions) with and without ship emissions for the year 2006 to determine the effects of international shipping on the annual as well as seasonal concentrations of ozone, primary and secondary components of PM2.5, and the dry and wet deposition of nitrogen and sulfur compounds in Europe. The largest changes in pollutant concentrations due to ship emissions were predicted for summer. Concentrations of particulate sulfate increased due to ship emissions in the Mediterranean (up to 60 %), the English Channel and the North Sea (30–35 %), while increases in particulate nitrate levels were found especially in the north, around the Benelux area (20 %), where there were high NH3 land-based emissions. Our model results showed that not only are the atmospheric concentrations of pollutants affected by ship emissions, but also depositions of nitrogen and sulfur compounds increase significantly along the shipping routes. NOx emissions from the ships, especially in the English Channel and the North Sea, cause a decrease in the dry deposition of reduced nitrogen at source regions by moving it from the gas phase to the particle phase which then contributes to an increase in the wet deposition at coastal areas with higher precipitation. In the western Mediterranean region, on the other hand, model results show an increase in the deposition of oxidized nitrogen (mostly HNO3) due to the ship traffic. Dry deposition of SO2 seems to be significant along the shipping routes, whereas sulfate wet deposition occurs mainly along the Scandinavian and Adriatic coasts. The results presented in this paper suggest that evolution of NOx emissions from ships and land-based NH3 emissions will play a significant role in future European air quality.

Integrated Maritime Bunker Management with Stochastic Fuel Prices and New Emission Regulations

Maritime bunker management (MBM) controls the procurement and consumption of the fuels used on board and therefore manages one of the most important cost drivers in the shipping industry. At the operational level, a shipping company needs to manage its fuel consumption by making optimal routing and speed decisions for each voyage. But since fuel prices are highly volatile, a shipping company sometimes also needs to do tactical fuel hedging in the forward market to control risk and cost volatility. From an operations research perspective, it is customary to think of tactical and operational decisions as tightly linked. However, the existing literature on MBM normally focuses on only one of these two levels, rather than taking an integrated point of view. This is in line with how shipping companies operate; tactical and operational bunker management decisions are made in isolation. We develop a stochastic programming model involving both tactical and operational decisions in MBM in order to minimize the total expected fuel costs, controlled for financial risk, within a planning period. This paper points out that after the latest regulation of the Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECA) came into force in 2015, an integration of the tactical and operational levels in MBM has become important for shipping companies whose business deals with SECA. The results of the computational study shows isolated decision making on either tactical or operational level in MBM will lead to various problem. Nevertheless, the most server consequence occurs when tactical decisions are made in isolation.

Monitoring compliance with sulfur content regulations of shipping fuel by in situ measurements of ship emissions

Abstract. In 1997 the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) adopted MARPOL Annex VI to prevent air pollution by shipping emissions. It regulates, among other issues, the sulfur content in shipping fuels, which is transformed into the air pollutant sulfur dioxide (SO2) during combustion. Within designated Sulfur Emission Control Areas (SECA), the sulfur content was limited to 1 %, and on 1 January 2015, this limit was further reduced to 0.1 %. Here we present the set-up and measurement results of a permanent ship emission monitoring site near Hamburg harbour in the North Sea SECA. Trace gas measurements are conducted with in situ instruments and a data set from September 2014 to January 2015 is presented. By combining measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2) and SO2 with ship position data, it is possible to deduce the sulfur fuel content of individual ships passing the measurement station, thus facilitating the monitoring of compliance of ships with the IMO regulations. While compliance is almost 100 % for the 2014 data, it decreases only very little in 2015 to 95.4 % despite the much stricter limit. We analysed more than 1400 ship plumes in total and for months with favourable conditions, up to 40 % of all ships entering and leaving Hamburg harbour could be checked for their sulfur fuel content.

Emission factors of SO<sub>2</sub>, NO<sub><i>x</i></sub> and particles from ships in Neva Bay from ground-based and helicopter-borne measurements and AIS-based modeling

Abstract. Emission factors of SO2, NOx and size-distributed particle numbers were measured for approximately 300 different ships in the Gulf of Finland and Neva Bay area during two campaigns in August/September 2011 and June/July 2012. The measurements were carried out from a harbor vessel and from an Mi-8 helicopter downwind of passing ships. Other measurements were carried out from shore sites near the island of Kronstadt and along the Neva River in the urban area of Saint Petersburg. Most ships were running at reduced speed (10 kn), i.e., not at their optimal load. Vessels for domestic and international shipping were monitored. It was seen that the distribution of the SO2 emission factors is bi-modal, with averages of 4.6 and 18.2 gSO2 kgfuel-1 for the lower and the higher mode, respectively. The emission factors show compliance with the 1% fuel sulfur content Sulfur Emission Control Areas (SECA) limit for 90% of the vessels in 2011 and 97% in 2012. The distribution of the NOx emission factor is mono-modal, with an average of 58 gNOx kgfuel-1. The corresponding emission related to the generated power yields an average of 12.1 gNOx kWh−1. The distribution of the emission factors for particulate number shows that nearly 90% of all particles in the 5.6 nm to 10 μm size range were below 70 nm in diameter. The distribution of the corresponding emission factors for the mass indicates two separated main modes, one for particles between 30 and 300 nm and the other for above 2 μm. The average particle emission factors were found to be in the range from 0.7 to 2.7 × 1016 particles kgfuel-1 and 0.2 to 3.4 gPM kgfuel-1, respectively. The NOx and particulate emissions are comparable with other studies. The measured emission factors were compared, for individual ships, to modeled ones using the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM) of the Finnish Meteorological Institute. A reasonably good agreement for gaseous sulfur and nitrogen emissions can be seen for ships in international traffic, but significant deviations are found for inland vessels. Regarding particulate mass, the values of the modeled data are about 2–3 times higher than the measured results, which probably reflects the assumptions made in the modeled fuel sulfur content. The sulfur contents in the fuel retrieved from the measurements were lower than the previously used assumptions by the City of Saint Petersburg when carrying out atmospheric modeling, and using these measurements it was possible to better assess the impact of shipping on air quality.

Sulphur emission control areas and transport strategies -the case of Sweden and the forest industry

Background and purposeThe International Maritime Organisation’s (IMO) decision to lower the allowable amount of sulphur content in marine fuels to 0.1 % in the so-called Emission Control Areas (ECAs) beginning in 2015 has outraged the Swedish forest industry. The seas around Sweden are included in the ECA and achieving the new sulphur directive requires shipowners to take actions that will increase the cost of transporting goods by ship from Sweden. Swedish forest industry exports are transported mostly by ship and there is a possibility that the forest industry will shift freight from sea to land transport because of the sulphur directive. How greatly the transport costs differ between different transportation options is affected by several uncertainties such as price trends for fuel. Other restrictions for shipping, such as nitrogen oxide emissions and ballast water treatment, are also expected to become stricter in the future. The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the sulphur directive and associated uncertainties on the Swedish forest industry, its transport system structure, and its logistics strategies.Results and conclusionsPrevious studies in the field have forecast that the freight will be transferred to land because of the sulphur directive. Our results also show that companies will transfer the cargo to land transport. The transfer will be greater the further south in the country production facilities are located. Goods that previously were shipped from ports on the Swedish east coast will instead be shipped more frequently from ports on the west coast to reduce transport time within the ECA region. Furthermore, the results show that firms do not sign agreements with shipping lines that extend beyond the year 2015, but instead write long, flexible agreements with rail operators, enabling an increase in freight strategy to address the sulphur directive. In this way, they have created the capacity to transform the transport structure.