Sulfur Concrete Research Articles

Comparison of Sulfur Concrete, Cement Concrete and Cement-Sulfur Concrete and their Properties and Application

One of the applications of sulfur in construction and industry is producing sulfur concrete. Sulfur concrete has charming features and many properties such as high strength, corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, impermeability, recyclability and rapid hardening that have caused much interest in using it. It can be used in dam building, construction of sewer pipes, irrigation canals, concrete piles, piers, beach walls and etc , so that a greater proportion of cement produced in the country would be used in construction because generally sulfur concrete cannot be used instead of cement concrete unless in areas with medium and low structural importance or when there is no possibility of using concrete cement. Results obtained in this study indicate that sulfur concrete with the additional stuff, cover cement concrete with sulfur-modification, sulfur concrete containing fiber, sulfur concrete with electrolytic residual and sulfur concrete with fly ash, depending on the combination of resistance in most cases, have equal to or higher resistance than conventional sulfur and cement concrete; it is also clarified that sulfur concrete with fly ash has higher pressure resistance than the other compositions.

Durability of modified sulfur concrete in sewerage environment

This study verifies and validates the superiority of sulfur concrete (SC) over the ordinary Portland cement concrete (PCC) and sulfate-resistant concrete (SRC) in sewer harsh environments. A field study was performed in an actual sewage environment, specifically at the sewer’s gas and sludge environments. Performance of the PCC, SRC and two types of SC was assessed after 3, 6, 10, 18 and 24 months of exposure. Specimen’s durability was evaluated through physical appearance, change in weight and mechanical and hydraulic properties. The microstructure and the composition of the specimens were studied by means of scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Attempts have been made to explain the mechanism of deterioration, the basic chemical interactions involved in the deterioration processes and the effect of such interactions on the concrete and reinforcing steel. It was found that SC is highly resistant to sewer environment compared to PCC and SRC, and that there was a significant weight loss of 8·0% and 13·6% in PCC and SRC, respectively, whereas a smaller weight loss of 2·2% was noticed in SC. This is consistent with the observed reduction in strength, increase in permeability and noticeable steel bar corrosion for the PCC and SRC relative to the SC.

The Experimental Research on Special Polymerized Sulfur Composite- Impregnated Concrete and Cement Mortar

Specific chemical environments step out in the industry objects. This paper presents experimental investigation results of the chemical resistance of special polymerized sulfur composite impregnated concrete and cement mortar. The special polymerized sulfur composite applied as the industrial waste material. The process of special polymerized sulfur composite as the industrial waste material production is a thermal treatment process in the temperature of about 150-155°C. The result of such treatment is special sulfur composite in a liquid state. Special sulfur composite in a liquid state is mixed with previously heated extender. In the paper there is presented development of the special polymerized sulfur composite as the industrial waste material, along with the practical uses in building industry. Also this paper presents the results of the experimental research and analyses indicating the usefulness of special polymerized sulfur composite to the protection against corrosion of concrete and cement mortar. In this paper the review of the literature have been done, among other things about select using special polymerized sulfur composite in buildings, about the methods of the surface protection against corrosion of concrete and about the methods of the evaluation of protection layer on these materials. Also in paper presents materials also the domain of the personal investigations and the methodology are definite. The research has comprised the compositions and the conditions for the formation of materials. The physical and mechanical properties of special polymerized sulfur composite have been evaluated. After the analysis of the initial results the optimum compositions have been chosen to the experimental research. In this paper the usefulness of special polymerized sulfur composite to the surface protection against corrosion of the concrete and cement mortar have been evaluated. Special polymerized sulfur composite impregnation of lean concrete and cement mortar increases its compressive strength from less than 1/3 to 1-1/2 times that of high strength concrete. Maximum absorption of special polymerized sulfur composite is achieved by carrying out the impregnation in molten sulfur under vacuum. Recent work indicates that satisfactory impregnation levels may also be achieved without the use of vacuum. Studies also show that while impregnation of high strength concrete and cement mortar increases its final strength to a value higher than that of low strength concrete, the relative increase in strength and the amount of special polymerized sulfur composite absorbed are smaller. Special polymerized sulfur composite impregnated concrete and cement mortar (SIC) may be used where high strength, resistance to water penetration, chemicals etc. are required. Available impregnating technology is applicable to precast concrete and cement mortar structures, while suitable technology for impregnating cast-in-place concrete needs to be developed. The impregnation of building materials such as blocks and bricks with melted special polymerized sulfur composite increases the compressive strength by a factor of 2 and modulus of elasticity by a factor of 3. The permeability of special polymerized sulfur composite impregnated materials to water and salt solutions is also greatly reduced. Due to the large surplus of sulphur and the low price, special polymerized sulfur composite impregnation of building materials will find extensive use in tall building construction. The space in concrete and cement mortar resulting from porosity reduces strength, exposes the concrete to chemical attack and, if filled with water, leads to destructive frost action at low temperatures. Filling the pores permanently and completely with an inert solid appears to be an effective way to improve mechanical properties and durability. Laboratory studies of impregnation with polymers have indicated that this is beneficial. New developments in concrete and cement mortar special sulfur polymer materials have declined in the Poland. There are still many products that are widely used, but the growth of these materials seems to have stabilized. A brief summary of new products related to special sulfur polymer composite impregnation, repair, overlays and precast polymer concrete will be presented. Sulfur polymer composite impregnation, which has received little attention in recent years, currently has some very interesting applications. Repair materials, particularly low modulus sulfur polymer concretes, have proven to be very effective. An innovative overlay for use in areas where freezing and thawing is prevalent has been developed.

An investigation on the use of electrolytic manganese residue as filler in sulfur concrete

Utilization of sulfate-rich industrial residue building materials can reduce both the production cost and the environmental impact of the solid wastes. In this paper, the possibility of using electrolytic manganese residues filler for sulfur cement concrete has been investigated and compared with those of the relevant mortar samples. Mechanical properties, microstructure and durability of the sulfur concrete samples prepared with the above mentioned waste filler has been discussed. The microstructure results indicate that electrolytic manganese residue and aggregates were tightly wrapped by hydrophobic modified sulfur forming particle packing structure. The new sulfur concrete samples showed high mechanical strength and excellent environmental durability. Leaching test showed that the leaching concentrations of the heavy metal ions were far below the regulatory limits of National Integrated Waste water Discharge Standards in China (GB 8978-1996). Therefore, the results obtained in this study established a technical suitability of electrolytic manganese residue as raw material for sulfur cement concrete.

수용성 유황 첨가 콘크리트의 역학 특성 및 탄산화 저항성

In this study, two types of water-soluble sulfur, LSA and LSB, were developed and the influence of the water-soluble sulfur on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete were experimentally evaluated. In order to evaluate mechanical properties and carbonation resistance of concrete with water-soluble sulfur, compressive strength test, flexural strength test, bonding strength test, and carbonation resistance test were performed. Compressive strength of only concrete with 1% LSA was increased while that of concrete with LSB was proportionally increased with the higher LSB dosage. On the other hand, flexural strength of concrete with LSA and LSB was increased by 12-41% and 36-74%, respectively. Carbonation resistance of concrete with water-soluble sulfur were increased by 25-66%. As a result, it should be noted that the water-soluble sulfur can not only solve the demerit of sulfur concrete but also offer the durability of sulfur concrete.

Durability of sustainable sulfur concrete with fly ash and recycled aggregate against chemical and weathering environments

Fossil fuel consumption is rapidly increasing all over the world, and so is the amount of sulfur yielded as a byproduct of petroleum refining processes. A huge cost of waste disposal will be demanded if no counterplan is prepared for constantly growing sulfur production. As an innovative solution, using sulfur for the role of a binder in concrete has been recently pursued to replace entire cement and water.This study investigates the mechanical and durability properties of sulfur concrete made with fly ash and recycled aggregate; effects of the sustainable materials are explored as an effort to maximize the sustainability of sulfur concrete. Based on the results of preliminary tests, three types of mix proportions are designed for further investigation. The key test variables are the partial replacement of modified sulfur by fly ash and the type of coarse aggregate (natural or recycled). In all concrete mixtures, neither cement nor water is included. The durability properties of sulfur concrete in severe chemical and weathering environments are explored, including chemical resistance, freezing–thawing resistance, and coefficient of thermal expansion. Essential mechanical properties such as compressive and tensile strengths and elastic modulus are also examined.

Review of possible mineral materials and production techniques for a building material on the moon

AbstractThis article provides an overview of the findings and production processes for the mineral materials that have been developed and tested worldwide in the past with regard to the establishment of a lunar base. Firstly, the aim of and procedure for constructing a lunar base are briefly outlined. Following that, the lunar environment factors and their influence on a possible structure are described. The paper then presents the advantages and disadvantages of the materials examined, such as sulphur concrete, cast basalt, lunar concrete or polymer concrete, on the one hand, as well as production processes investigated previously, such as sintering, geothermite reaction and 3D printing, on the other. One promising method is the dry‐mix/steam‐injection (DMSI) method for producing a lunar concrete as a possible material which was developed by T. D. Lin and is based on cement made from lunar resources.

유황개질 바인더를 사용한 유황 콘크리트의 물리적 특성

최근 국내에서는 원유 정제과정에서 많은 양의 부생황이 발생하고 있다. 유황콘크리트는 시멘트 풀을 유황개질 바인더로 대체한 콘크리트로서 시멘트 제조시에 대량으로 발생되는 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX>의 저감 및 원유 정제산업에서 부생되는 황을 활용할 수 있는 이점이 있다. 또한 유황콘크리트는 반복해서 재활용할 수 있는 친환경적이고 지속가능한 재료이다. 이 연구에서는 개질유황 바인더를 사용한 유황콘크리트의 물리적 특성을 실험을 통하여 검토하였다. 실험 결과, 유황콘크리트는 대체적으로 50~80MPa 이상의 고강도 특성을 보였다. 단위질량, 탄성계수 및 인장강도는 포틀랜드 시멘트 콘크리트(PCC)와 유사하였다. 순환굵은골재를 유황콘크리트에 적용하는 경우 순환골재의 단점을 보완하는 동시에 고강도콘크리트 제조가 가능하다. 유황콘크리트의 열팽창계수는 PCC보다 다소 큰 값으로 나타내고 있으나, 채움재를 혼입하여 일반 콘크리트 수준의 열팽창계수를 보이는 것으로 나타났다. Recently, a huge amount of sulfur has been produced as a byproduct of petroleum refining processes in Korea. Sulfur concrete is made of modified sulfur binder instead of cement paste, which has advantages of reducing <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> emission from cement industry as well as utilizing surplus sulfur. Also, sulfur concrete is a sustainable material that can be repetitively recycled. In this study, the physical properties of sulfur concrete are experimentally investigated. From the test results, sulfur concrete showed compressive strengths higher than at least 50MPa. Also, the unit weight, modulus of elasticity and splitting tensile strength of sulfur concrete was similar to that of Portland cement concrete (PCC). The coefficient of thermal expansion of sulfur concrete was a little larger than that of Portland cement concrete and sulfur concrete with mineral filler is helpful to lower the coefficient of thermal expansion. recycled aggregate sulfur concrete resulted in a slight reduction in the compressive strength, but sulfur concrete with recycled aggregate can achieve the high strength characteristics.

Utilization of Sulfur Waste from Petroleum Refinery for Sulfur Concrete

In this study, sulfur and sulfur wastes from petroleum refinery were utilized to produce sulfur concrete. Sulfur concrete was prepared by mixing molten sulfur and modified sulfur. Then, filler and sand was added and mixed continuously. This research was investigated by assessing the effect of ratio and sulfur wastes on the compressive strength of sulfur concrete. The result showed that sulfur wastes were affected by the compressive strength. Sulfur concrete which produced from sulfur by product from desulfurization unit has the highest compressive strength (2.56+0.06 MPa). The compressive strength was decrease when using sulfur wastes. However, the ratio of sulfur and modified sulfur affected the compressive strength of sulfur concrete because modified sulfur is very efficient in binding and strengthening the aggregates. The amount of modified sulfur increases, so does the compressive strength. It should be noted that sulfur concrete has been used to produce non-load bearing wall and non-load bearing concrete masony units for the propose of reduce to landfill and support sustainability concept.

Integrity of sulfur concrete subjected to simulated lunar temperature cycles

In view of potential application as a construction material on the lunar surface the mechanical integrity of sulfur concrete was evaluated after being subjected to simulated temperature cycles. Here, small cubes of sulfur concrete were repeatedly cycled between room (20°C) and liquid nitrogen (−191°C) temperatures after which they, and non-cycled cubes, were evaluated by compression testing. The compression strength of the non-cycled samples averaged ∼35MPa (5076psi) before failing whereas the cycled samples fractured at about 7MPa (1015psi). Microscopic examination of the fracture surfaces from the cycled samples showed clear de-bonding of the sulfur from the aggregate whereas it was seen adhering in those non-cycled. Based on a simple analysis it was concluded that the large strength discrepancy between cycled and non-cycled samples is due to differences between the coefficients of thermal expansion of the materials constituting the concrete.

Performance of lunar sulfur concrete in lunar environments

This study explores an alternative to hydraulic concrete by replacing the binding mix of concrete (cement and water) with sulfur. Sulfur is a volatile element on the lunar surface that can be extracted from lunar soils by heating. Sulfur concrete mixes were prepared to investigate the effect of extreme environmental conditions such as impact and space radiation on the properties of sulfur concrete. A hypervelocity impact test was conducted, having as its target small sulfur concrete samples. The lunar concrete samples have been prepared using JSC-1 lunar simulant, produced by Johnson Space Center, as an aggregate addition. The sample was placed in the MSFC Impact Test Facility’s Micro Light Gas Gun’ target chamber, and was struck by a 1-mm diameter (∼1.4e−03g) aluminum projectile at 5.85km/s. A detailed analysis of the damage caused by a catastrophic event could help design the size, shape, and placement of individual structures in the base to minimize detrimental effects. The effectiveness of sulfur concrete subjected to space radiation was analyzed using HZETRN mathematical code, provided by NASA. A concrete wall made of sulfur and JSC-1 simulant would need to be thicker than a wall made of plain JSC-1 simulant to provide the same amount of protection. Test results were presented, discussed and put into the context of the lunar environments.

Innovative Solutions for Sulphur in Qatar

Abstract The estimated sulphur output from Qatar is around 4 Mtpa by 2012, primarily from gas processing operations(Sulphur magazine, March/April 2009). Shell is using novel technologies to utilize sulphur in various applications such as concrete (Shell Thiocrete*), asphalt (Shell Thiopave*) and fertilizers (Shell Thiogro*). The sulphur utilization programme in Qatar Shell Research and Technology Centre is part of a global research and development effort to develop Shell's sulphur concrete and sulphur modified asphalt technologies, with particular emphasis on the needs of the Gulf region. Shell's innovative sulphur concrete technology has the potential to take sulphur concrete from use in niche applications such as chemical flooring to more mainstream applications such as garden products, road construction products (e.g. pavers and traffic barriers) and marine products. This is because the relatively low cost of the modification technology allows sulphur concrete to be considered in applications previously covered only by Portland cement. The first field trial of sulphur concrete in Qatar is a 16 square metre area of sulphur concrete tiles in the Pearl GTL Worker's Village, Ras Laffan Industrial City, Qatar, laid in May 2008. Laboratory results showed that the bending strength of all the sulphur concrete mixtures was greater than the strength of the cement concrete. Moreover, the water absorption of the sulphur concrete tiles was lower than that of the cement concrete tiles. Shell's sulphur-modified asphalt is a technology developed by Shell Sulphur Solutions in 2003, enabling a portion of the bitumen in an asphalt mix to be replaced by modified sulphur, resulting in a pavement that has enhanced mechanical properties such as increased stiffness and significantly reduced permanent deformation. A trial two-lane section of roadway of asphalt mix containing sections of Shell Thiopave and conventional asphalt mixture was constructed in October 2007 at Pearl GTL Worker's Village. The results of the field monitoring study showed that the total road section (sulphur-modified asphalt and conventional mixture) was free of any moderate or major distresses. Industrial hygiene monitoring during laying operations showed that SO2 and H2S emissions remain below the maximum limits when the temperature is controlled than 1450C.The laboratory characterization showed that the sulphur-modified asphalt mixture exhibited better resistance to permanent deformation and higher stiffness than the conventional mixture.

Use of image analysis for durability testing of sulfur concrete and Portland cement concrete

Sulfur concrete was prepared by using the following initial components: sand as an aggregate, modified sulfur binder, and alumina as a filler. Portland cement concrete was made of the same aggregate, cement and water. The durability of prepared concrete samples was tested in 10% solution of HCl as a function of immersion time. The changes in mechanical strength and mass of the samples were periodically measured. Sulfur concrete exhibited limited mechanical strength and mass loss, while physico-mechanical properties of Portland cement concrete regressed rapidly. The image analysis used for surface destruction monitoring, performed by Image Pro Plus Program for determination of damaged surface area and original surface area before acid resistance testing, showed the similar results. Based on the image analysis results, model for predicting the mechanical strength degradation during durability testing was presented. The fact that calculated and experimental strength values were not far apart proved the validity of the proposed model.

Durability of sulfur concrete in various aggressive environments

Durability of sulfur concrete with different fillers, as well as Portland cement concrete, was tested in the solutions of HCl, H 2SO 4, and NaCl. Regarding mass changes, in the solutions of HCl and H 2SO 4 sulfur concrete with talc and fly ash exhibited higher durability, while in NaCl samples with alumina and microsilica were better. The type of filler did not affect durability regarding compressive strength. Strength loss was higher in the solution of HCl comparing to H 2SO 4, while negligible in NaCl which is in accordance with apparent porosity increase. Portland cement concrete after two months lost 20% of mass.

The influence of filler type on the corrosion stability of the sulfure concrete

Sulfur concrete was prepared by using the initial components: sand as an aggregate, modified sulfur binder, and talc, alumina, microsilica, and fly ash as fillers. Portland cement concrete was made of the same aggregate and fillers and portland cement. The durability of prepared concrete samples was tested in following aggressive solutions: 10% HCl, 20% H2SO4, and 3% NaCl as a function of time. Changes in mass and strength of the sulfur concrete were monitored periodicallly during the immersion time of 360 days in above solutions. These changes were used as a measure of deterioration level. It should be highlighted that the samples with the ash and especially talc exhibit higher durability in the solutions of HCl and H2SO4 than the samples with alumina and microsilica. In the solutions of NaCl all samples shown excellent durability while the samples with talc were the best. Portland cement concrete samples after two months lost 20 % of mass and shown degradation of mechanical properties. By usage of sulfur for sulfur concrete production, huge environmental problem regarding storage of waste sulfur from oil refining process is solved. On the other hand, sulfur concrete with its low price has an excellent quality for the application in aggressive environments unlike more expensive PCC.

The influence of filler type on the corrosion stability of the sulfure concrete

Sulfur concrete was prepared by using the initial components: sand as an aggregate, modified sulfur binder, and talc, alumina, microsilica, and fly ash as fillers. Portland cement concrete was made of the same aggregate and fillers and portland cement. The durability of prepared concrete samples was tested in following aggressive solutions: 10% HCl, 20% H2SO4, and 3% NaCl as a function of time. Changes in mass and strength of the sulfur concrete were monitored periodicallly during the immersion time of 360 days in above solutions. These changes were used as a measure of deterioration level. It should be highlighted that the samples with the ash and especially talc exhibit higher durability in the solutions of HCl and H2SO4 than the samples with alumina and microsilica. In the solutions of NaCl all samples shown excellent durability while the samples with talc were the best. Portland cement concrete samples after two months lost 20 % of mass and shown degradation of mechanical properties. By usage of sulfur for sulfur concrete production, huge environmental problem regarding storage of waste sulfur from oil refining process is solved. On the other hand, sulfur concrete with its low price has an excellent quality for the application in aggressive environments unlike more expensive PCC.

Preparation of Sulfur Mortar from Modified Sulfur

Mixtures of mineral aggregate and modified sulfur, wherein the modified sulfur functions as a binder, are termed sulfur concretes or sulfur mortars depending on the form of the mineral aggregate. Molten sulfur reacted with olefinic additive, at 130-140 oC, and then mixed with preheated filler and aggregates. Sulfur mortar samples were prepared by mixing 32 % molten sulfur, 10 % filler and 58 % aggregates. The effects of reaction temperature, and heating time, were tested on mechanical properties of sulfur mortar. Sulfur mortars were prepared by silica flour, mica and carbon as filler in which silica flour can reduce odor problems. Sulfur mortar specimens have compressive strength (200-424 kg/cm 2 ), tensile strength (more than 80 kg/cm 2 ), and flexural strength (110-120 kg/cm 2 ).

Sulfur “concrete” for lunar applications – Sublimation concerns

Melting sulfur and mixing it with an aggregate to form “concrete” is commercially well established and constitutes a material that is particularly well-suited for use in corrosive environments. Discovery of the mineral troilite (FeS) on the moon poses the question of extracting the sulfur for use as a lunar construction material. This would be an attractive alternative to conventional concrete as it does not require water. However, the viability of sulfur concrete in a lunar environment, which is characterized by lack of an atmosphere and extreme temperatures, is not well understood. Here it is assumed that the lunar ore can be mined, refined, and the raw sulfur melded with appropriate lunar regolith to form, for example, bricks. This study evaluates pure sulfur and two sets of small sulfur concrete samples that have been prepared using JSC-1 lunar stimulant and SiO 2 powder as aggregate additions. Each set was subjected to extended periods in a vacuum environment to evaluate sublimation issues. Results from these experiments are presented and discussed within the context of the lunar environment.

Sulfur concrete for haul road construction at Suncor oil sands mines

The feasibility of constructing mine roads at oil sands mines (Fort McMurray, Alberta) using concrete prepared from bitumen extraction and upgrading by-products and mine wastes (sulfur, fly ash, coke, and tailing sand) is evaluated. An extensive laboratory test program, including unconfined compression testing, sonic velocity measurement, and split tensile and freeze–thaw durability tests, was carried out to characterize the physical and mechanical properties of different mix designs of sulfur concrete. A study of the geochemical interaction of sulfur concrete with the near-surface environment included short-term interaction of surface-exposed sulfur concrete during the construction and operational life of the haul road and long-term interaction of sulfur concrete with groundwater following its eventual burial with mine wastes in the mined-out pits. Haul road test sections were designed based on the critical strain and resilient modulus design method. Stress and strain distributions in the selected haul road cross section induced by the truck tires were calculated using finite element analysis. Required pavement layer thicknesses were then determined on the basis of the truck loads, and resilient modulus and strength of the sulfur concrete and subgrade material using the critical strain and resilient modulus design method.Key words: sulfur concrete, mine haul road design, concrete pavement.

Potential Nontraditional Uses for Byproduct Sulfur in Kazakhstan

This article, written by Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights of paper SPE 94177, “Potential Nontraditional Uses of Byproduct E&amp;P Produced Sulfur in Kazakhstan,” by P.W. Beall and J.M. Neff, Battelle Memorial Inst., prepared for the 2005 SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, Galveston, Texas, 7–9 March. Kazakhstan oil and gas companies recover approximately 2000 to 3000 tonne/d of elemental sulfur from product streams. In Europe and the U.S., recovered elemental sulfur normally is sold into the chemical and manufacturing markets as a raw material for phosphate fertilizer, sulfuric acid, detergents, and other chemicals; metal and fiber industries; paint manufacture; rubber products; paper; and pharmaceuticals. Byproduct elemental sulfur also can be used as a binder replacement in petroleum asphalt and Portland concrete, yielding sulfur-modified asphalt and concrete that meets or exceeds American Soc. for Testing and Materials and/or American Concrete Inst. standards. Potential Uses Potential outlets for Kazakhstan produced sulfur include: sulfur/polymer concrete slabs and blocks for construction and sulfur/polymer stabilization solidification (SPSS) for radioactive- and mercury-contaminated materials. The developing Kashagan East prospect is presalt and involves drilling to a depth of approximately 5000 m. Any oil discovered in this area will likely be similar to Tengiz crude (i.e., exceptionally light with a high H2S content), requiring market outlets for recovered elemental sulfur. This field could more than double recovered elemental sulfur production in Kazakhstan. The Tengizchevroil and Kashagan East fields and treatment facilities are in a very sensitive environmental and geopolitical area with multiple important stakeholders, including consortium partners and Kazakhstan regulators. The remoteness of these sulfur-recovery facilities, the difficulties of transport, and underdevelopment of the emerging markets for sulfur have made it difficult for Kazakhstan to tap into outlets for elemental sulfur. Hence, as Fig. 1 shows, the recovered sulfur typically is stored on the ground. Tengizchevroil has started an export pro-gram in which flaked sulfur is exported to eastern Europe, Africa, and China. There are three potential nontraditional market outlets for elemental sulfur in Kazakhstan: sulfur-extended asphaltic concrete, polymer-modified sulfur concrete, and SPSS. Sulfur-Extended-Asphaltic Concrete Kazakhstan has 189×103 km of roads, of which 109×103 km are paved. Kazakhstan has three major oil refineries supplying the northern region (at Pavlodar), western region (at Atyrau), and southern region (at Shymkent), with a total refining capacity of 57 600 tonne/d. Only the Pavlodar refinery produces asphalt/bitumen material and has a capacity of 5×105 tonne/a. The petroleum asphalt can be extended by 50 wt% using elemental sulfur. The asphalt produced at the Pavlodar refinery provides Kazakhstan with enough binder material to pave or repave approximately 1000 km/a of roadway. Extending current petroleum-asphalt production capabilities with elemental sulfur would allow Kazakhstan to pave or repave an additional 250 km of roadway each year, equivalent to oil production of approximately 18 400 tonne/d. Paving or repaving 1250 km/a of road-way means that Kazakhstan rebuilds its roads every 150 years, assuming that asphalt is always used. By increasing asphalt and asphaltic-concrete production capabilities, the turnaround ratio can be reduced dramatically, providing additional outlets for elemental sulfur. Use of elemental sulfur to extend asphalt-production capabilities does not threaten an existing industry in Kazakhstan.