Sulfated Polysaccharides Research Articles

Immunomodulatory activity of red algal galactans and their partially depolymerized derivatives in RAW264.7 macrophages

Funoran and furcellaran were isolated through a successive cascade extraction process, followed by the depolymerization of extracted polymers via an auto-hydrolysis process. The molecular weight and structural peculiarities of both native and partially depolymerized polysaccharides were investigated using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), FTIR, and NMR spectroscopy. Immunotropic effects of the native and partially depolymerized polysaccharides were explored through various in vitro assays. Although both higher and lower molecular weight funoran exhibited anti-inflammatory activity on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells by significantly downregulating iNOS and COX-2 gene expression, as well as the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, native funoran performed slightly better. Conversely, higher molecular weight furcellaran remarkably activated RAW264.7 cells compared to the non-treated control by inducing inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines, including the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Lower molecular weight furcellaran was unable to activate the macrophages, showing a similar behavior pattern to funoran samples in LPS-treated cells. Furthermore, the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway appears to be modulated by sulfated polysaccharides, leading to both anti-inflammatory and immunostimulatory responses in RAW264.7 cells through blocking and activating mechanisms. These findings indicate that sulfated polysaccharides could be promising therapeutic agents, and indeed, the molecular weight of polysaccharides plays a crucial role in the immune response of RAW264.7 macrophages.

Characterization of salt brine sulfated polysaccharides: immunomodulatory activity based on gut microbiota

A sulfated polysaccharide consisting of two components with molecular weights of 439 kDa and 16 kDa was extracted from the salt brine. The structural properties, immunomodulatory activity, in vitro fermentation behaviors, and effects of SP on regulating the gut microbiota were investigated. The chemical composition and monosaccharide composition analysis showed that the neutral sugar, protein, uronic acid, and sulfated group contents of SP were 60.42 ± 0.04%, 2.90 ± 0.01%, 13.34 ± 0.01% and 10.51 ± 0.01%, respectively, containing arabinose, galactose, glucose, rhamnose, xylose, mannose, and glucuronic acid in a molar ratio of 33.24:19.18:16.64:13.25:8.31:4.11:5.27. Results from the macrophage cell model showed that SP intervention improved the proliferation activity, phagocytosis of neutral red, and production of IL-6 and TNF-α in RAW 264.7. Furthermore, in vitro fermentation of SP by gut microbiota showed that SCFA production in all treatment groups was significantly higher than that of the blank control group after 48 h of fermentation, especially butyric acid which was 1.70 folds that of the control group. Moreover, long-term fermentation (48 h) of SP improved the diversity of microbiota, decreased the F/B ratio (30.75 at 0 h vs. 1.22 at 48 h), and promoted the growth of probiotics (Parabacteroides, Bacteroidetes, Ruminococcaceae, and Phascolarctobacterium). The positive regulatory effect of SP on the gut microbiota and its metabolites is considered a potential target for its immunomodulatory activity.Graphical abstract

The anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and anticoagulant potential of a polysaccharide extracted from the brown alga Cystoseira humilis

The present study aimed to evaluate the properties of a sulfated polysaccharide (PSCH) extracted from the brown alga Cystoseira humilis. We analyzed the chemical composition, anti-angiogenesis activities, anticoagulant, and anti-inflammatory effects of the PSCH, using various techniques encompassing UV–visible spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (X-RD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), steric exclusion chromatography (SEC) and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to refractive index detector (HPLC-RID). The study found that PSCH was a sulfated heteropolysaccharide consisting of glucuronic acid, arabinose, galacturonic acid, xylose and fructose, and has a semi-crystalline nature with a molecular weight of about 379.44 kDa. The PSCH contains 41.77 % carbohydrates, 12.33 % proteins, and 4.59 % sulfates. The PSCH fraction has anti-angiogenic potential highlighted through assays on the chorioallantoic membrane, where vascular branching was inhibited by about 41.65 % and 61.38 % at concentrations of 50 and 100 μg/egg, respectively, compared to the untreated group. PSCH displayed an anti-edematous effect in vivo by reducing malondialdehyde and advanced oxidation protein products in paw tissue after five hours of carrageenan injection. When rats were co-treated with PSCH, there was evidence of a significant increase in antioxidant enzyme activity (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione) in edematous paw tissues compared to untreated rats. Furthermore, PSCH significantly influenced hematological parameters and the rate of anti-inflammatory serum protein fractions compared to the inflamed group. Interestingly, PSCH may exhibit anticoagulant properties by extending activated partial thrombosis time, thrombin time and prothrombin time. The present study has shown that Cystoseira humilis polysaccharides have antioxidant, anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-coagulant properties, making them suitable for therapeutic purposes.

Retraction of: Sulfated polysaccharide of Sepiella maindroni ink targets Akt and overcomes resistance to the FGFR inhibitor AZD4547 in bladder cancer.

Retraction of: Sulfated polysaccharide of Sepiella maindroni ink targets Akt and overcomes resistance to the FGFR inhibitor AZD4547 in bladder cancer.

Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC) as an innovative pre-treatment for extraction of natural compounds from the brown seaweed Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt 1955 (Ochrophytina, Fucales)

The effects of the Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC) technology on the recovery of natural compounds from the brown seaweed Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt 1955 (Ochrophytina, Fucales) were investigated. Fresh biomass of S. muticum was collected on the Brittany Coast, France. Both fresh and Air Impingement-Dried (AID) thalli of 3 and 10 cm length were submitted to DIC during 20 s or 90 s of processing time under 100 or 800 kPa of saturated steam pressure. DIC treatment significantly improved the extraction of sulphate groups at 90 s, and carotene at 20 s under 100 kPa in thalli of 10 cm. While, coupling AID to DIC, the content of neutral sugars, proteins and antioxidants were higher in AID + DIC treatments. Further, a significant increase of 20 % in fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides and 30 % in sodium alginate under 100 kPa during 90 s, compared to oven-dried, was observed. The biomass of the invasive S. muticum treated by DIC and AID + DIC represented a valuable contribution for extraction of natural compounds. Advantages for industrial integration of DIC were discussed.

Preparation of sulfated arabinogalactan-loaded hydrogel for wound healing in mouse burn model

Sulfation of polysaccharides can affect their biological activity by introducing sulfate groups. Skin burns occur regularly and have a great impact on normal survival. In this study, sulfated arabinogalactan (SAG) was prepared by sulfation, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used to prepare hydrogels for the treatment of scalded skin in mouse. The results show that the main chain of SAG consists of →3-β-D-Galactose (Gal)-(1, →3, 6)-β-D-Gal-(1 and →4)-β-d-Glucose (Glc)-(1. The chain is a neutral polysaccharide composed of T-β-L-Arabinose (Araf)-(1→, with a molecular weight of 17.9 kDa. At the same time, PVA + SAG hydrogel can promote the scald repair of mouse skin by promoting collagen deposition and angiogenesis, and regulating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Interestingly, the effect of SAG on promoting the repair of scald wounds is enhanced after AG is derivatized by sulfation. Therefore, the preparation of SAG by sulfation can promote scald repair, and has great application potential in the field of food and medicine.

Sulfated polysaccharide from Antrodia cinnamomea mycelium cultured with zinc sulfate stimulates M1 polarization of macrophages through AKT/mTOR pathways

Antrodia cinnamomea-derived sulfated polysaccharides (Ac-SPSs) have health benefits, but their yield is low. This study explores a strategy to increase Ac-SPS yield and elucidates the biofunctions of Ac-SPS. For this, A. cinnamomea mycelia were treated with zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) administered at 1, 10, and 100 μM. Firstly, functional assay indicated that ZnSO4 increases the Ac-SPS yield by 20 %–30 % compared with the control treatment. ZnSO4 engenders a population of middle-molecular-weight (~200 kDa) Ac-SPSs. Ac-SPS (ASZ-10) from A. cinnamomea treated with 10 μM ZnSO4 exhibits the best anti-proliferation ability against lung cancer A549 cells. Co-treatment of ASZ-10 does not inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation but does induce M1-related markers of macrophage RAW264.7 cells. Secondly, immunomodulatory properties showed that ASZ-10 increases the expression of CD80+ and CD86+ in M-CSF-stimulated bone-marrow-derived macrophages. ASZ-10 induces M1 polarization through up-regulation of the AKT/mTOR pathway as confirmed by AKT and mTOR inhibitors eliminating ASZ-10-induced M1-like markers of macrophages. Through systemic chemical and functional analysis, this study shows that trace amounts (10 μM) of ZnSO4 increase Ac-SPS yield and it reveals that ASZ-10 exhibits anti-cancer activity and acts as a stimulator for M1 macrophages by stimulation of AKT and mTOR.

Modulatory effects of Enteromorpha prolifera powder and its enzymatic hydrolysate on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, and non-specific immunity of Trachinotus ovatus

The excessive proliferation of the genus Enteromorpha serves as the primary catalyst for the occurrence of red tides. Nonetheless, this genus is abundant in sulfated polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, peptides, and alkaloids, which exhibit remarkable efficacy in antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and immune response modulation. Consequently, Enteromorpha-derived products hold promising application prospects as aquatic feed additives. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of E. prolifera powder (EPM) and its enzymatic hydrolysate (EPH) on the growth, antioxidant capacity, intestinal morphology, and immunity of juvenile Trachinotus ovatus. Four isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets were formulated with varying levels of Enteromorpha products: 0 % (Control), 0.1 % EPH (EPH0.1), 0.3 % EPH (EPH0.3), and 3 % EPM, and were administered to juvenile T. ovatus for eight weeks. The findings revealed that growth performance in the EPH0.3 and EPM groups surpassed that of the control group, concomitant with increased feed intake and elongated intestinal villi. Notably, Enteromorpha-derived products supplementation significantly bolstered the antioxidant capacity of T. ovatus through activation of the Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathway, leading to elevations in antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and CAT, as well as T-AOC. Conversely, MDA levels were conspicuously reduced in the Enteromorpha-treated groups. Moreover, Enteromorpha-derived products supplementation exhibited pronounced anti-inflammatory effects, marked by the downregulation of proinflammatory cytokine expression and upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines, along with decreased apoptotic gene expression. These observations highlight the potential anti-inflammatory properties of EPM and EPH, which may contribute to the preservation of hepatic tissue health and homeostasis. In summary, the optimal growth performance and antioxidant capacity were achieved with 0.3 % EPH supplementation, indicating the efficacy of this concentration in promoting the overall wellbeing of T. ovatus. Remarkably, the employment of processing methodologies, notably enzymatic hydrolysis, has not only facilitated the manifestation but also potentially augmented the inherent beneficial attributes traditionally ascribed to EPM. Furthermore, this refinement process has enabled a reduction in the inclusion rate of EPM within feed formulations, thereby enhancing cost-effectiveness. Consequently, Enteromorpha-derived products emerge as highly promising candidates for aquatic feed additives, with the potential to mitigate the economic burdens imposed by red tide management strategies. Their utilization represents a strategic approach towards sustainable aquaculture practices.

Anti-inflammatory and anti–lung cancer activities of low-molecular-weight and high-sulfate-content sulfated polysaccharides extracted from the edible fungus Poria cocos

Sulfated polysaccharides (SPSs) have excellent physicochemical properties, attracting research interest in the pharmaceutical industry. A previous study extracted SPS (named Suc40) from the edible fungus, Poria cocos and demonstrated that it exhibited anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. In this study, three fractions of Suc40, Suc40 F1, Suc40 F2, and Suc40 F3, with different molecular weights and sulfate contents were prepared through gel-filtration column chromatography. The molecular weights of F1, F2, and F3 were approximately 616.23, 82.57, and 6.21 kDa, respectively, and their sulfate content were 0.23, 1.65, and 1.90 mmol/g, respectively. The fractions' anti-inflammatory activities were determined by assessing their ability to suppress inflammatory cytokines in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Suc40 F2 and Suc40 F3 suppressed interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production by 60 % and 35 %, respectively. Suc40 F2 and Suc40 F3 suppressed protein kinase B (AKT)/p38 and p38 signaling, which resulted in anti-inflammatory effects. The fractions' anti–lung cancer activity was evaluated by assessing their H1975 cell proliferation inhibition. Suc40 F3 at a concentration of 800 μg/ml exhibited maximal cell proliferation inhibition. The low molecular weight and high sulfate content of Suc40 F3 were associated with its enhanced anti-inflammatory and anti–lung cancer activities.

Extraction and Purification of Biopolymers from Marine Origin Sources Envisaging Their Use for Biotechnological Applications.

Biopolymers are a versatile and diverse class of materials that has won high interest due to their potential application in several sectors of the economy, such as cosmetics, medical materials/devices, and food additives. In the last years, the search for these compounds has explored a wider range of marine organisms that have proven to be a great alternative to mammal sources for these applications and benefit from their biological properties, such as low antigenicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, among others. Furthermore, to ensure the sustainable exploitation of natural marine resources and address the challenges of 3R's policies, there is a current necessity to valorize the residues and by-products obtained from food processing to benefit both economic and environmental interests. Many extraction methodologies have received significant attention for the obtention of diverse polysaccharides, proteins, and glycosaminoglycans to accomplish the increasing demands for these products. The present review gives emphasis to the ones that can be obtained from marine biological resources, as agar/agarose, alginate and sulfated polysaccharides from seaweeds, chitin/chitosan from crustaceans from crustaceans, collagen, and some glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acids from fish. It is offered, in a summarized and easy-to-interpret arrangement, the most well-established extraction and purification methodologies used for obtaining the referred marine biopolymers, their chemical structure, as well as the characterization tools that are required to validate the extracted material and respective features. As supplementary material, a practical guide with the step-by-step isolation protocol, together with the various materials, reagents, and equipment, needed for each extraction is also delivered is also delivered. Finally, some remarks are made on the needs still observed, despite all the past efforts, to improve the current extraction and purification procedures to achieve more efficient and green methodologies with higher yields, less time-consuming, and decreased batch-to-batch variability.

Advances in Biomedical Applications of Hydrogels from Seaweed-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharides: Carrageenan, Fucoidan, and Ulvan

Advances in Biomedical Applications of Hydrogels from Seaweed-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharides: Carrageenan, Fucoidan, and Ulvan

L-Fucose-Rich Sulfated Glycans from Edible Brown Seaweed: A Promising Functional Food for Obesity and Energy Expenditure Improvement.

The global obesity epidemic, exacerbated by the sedentary lifestyle fostered by the COVID-19 pandemic, presents a growing socioeconomic burden due to decreased physical activity and increased morbidity. Current obesity treatments show promise, but they often come with expensive medications, frequent injections, and potential side effects, with limited success in improving obesity through increased energy expenditure. This study explores the potential of a refined sulfated polysaccharide (SPSL), derived from the brown seaweed Scytosiphon lomentaria (SL), as a safe and effective anti-obesity treatment by promoting energy expenditure. Chemical characterization revealed that SPSL, rich in sulfate and L-fucose content, comprises nine distinct sulfated glycan structures. In vitro analysis demonstrated potent anti-lipogenic properties in adipocytes, mediated by the downregulation of key adipogenic modulators, including 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) pathways. Inhibiting AMPK attenuated the anti-adipogenic effects of SPSL, confirming its involvement in the mechanism of action. Furthermore, in vivo studies using zebrafish models showed that SPSL increased energy expenditure and reduced lipid accumulation. These findings collectively highlight the therapeutic potential of SPSL as a functional food ingredient for mitigating obesity-related metabolic dysregulation by promoting energy expenditure. Further mechanistic and preclinical investigations are warranted to fully elucidate its mode of action and evaluate its efficacy in obesity management, potentially offering a novel, natural therapeutic avenue for this global health concern.

Sustainable Production of Ulva Oligosaccharides via Enzymatic Hydrolysis: A Review on Ulvan Lyase.

Ulvan is a water-soluble sulfated polysaccharide extracted from the green algae cell wall. Compared with polysaccharides, oligosaccharides have drawn increasing attention in various industries due to their enhanced biocompatibility and solubility. Ulvan lyase degrades polysaccharides into low molecular weight oligosaccharides through the β-elimination mechanism. The elucidation of the structure, catalytic mechanism, and molecular modification of ulvan lyase will be helpful to obtain high value-added products from marine biomass resources, as well as reduce environmental pollution caused by the eutrophication of green algae. This review summarizes the structure and bioactivity of ulvan, the microbial origin of ulvan lyase, as well as its sequence, three-dimensional structure, and enzymatic mechanism. In addition, the molecular modification of ulvan lyase, prospects and challenges in the application of enzymatic methods to prepare oligosaccharides are also discussed. It provides information for the preparation of bioactive Ulva oligosaccharides through enzymatic hydrolysis, the technological bottlenecks, and possible solutions to address these issues within the enzymatic process.

Healing Potential of the Marine Polysaccharides Carrageenan and Ulvan on Second-Degree Burns.

The treatment of second-degree burn wounds presents a significant clinical challenge, often characterized by prolonged healing times and risk of complications. In this study, the wound healing potential of bioactive marine sulfated polysaccharides ulvan and carrageenan formulated in gels at concentrations of 1.5%, 5.0%, and 10% w/w was evaluated. Hairless female SKH-hr2 mice (n = 7 per treatment) with burn-inflamed skin were treated with the polysaccharide-based gels, and the therapeutic efficacy was assessed using a comprehensive array of evaluation methods, including a histopathological analysis, clinical observation, photo-documentation, an image analysis, an evaluation of biophysical skin parameters, and FT-IR spectroscopy. Our findings indicate that the 10% w/w carrageenan gel exhibited significant enhancement in wound healing, particularly in the early stages of the healing process. This was evidenced by the restoration of the α-helix structure of collagen and the configuration of glycosaminoglycans, as demonstrated by FT-IR absorption bands of the skin both in vivo and ex vivo. Furthermore, the 5% w/w ulvan gel also demonstrated notable efficacy in promoting wound healing, particularly in the later stages of the healing process. These results suggest that carrageenan and ulvan gels hold promise for improving the efficiency of wound healing in second-degree burn wounds. Our study contributes to the understanding of the therapeutic potential of marine polysaccharides and provides insights into their mechanism of action in promoting wound healing.

Structure and anticoagulant activity of a galactoarabinan sulfate polysaccharide and its oligosaccharide from the green algae, Codium fragile

A polysaccharide, CZS-0-1, was obtained from the marine green algae Codium fragile using ion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Composition and characteristics analyses showed CZS-0-1 was a sulfated galactoarabinan consisting of arabinose, galactose and a small amount of glucose in a ratio of 9:2:1 with 21% sulfate content and a molecular weight of 810 kDa. Structural properties were determined using desulfation and methylation analyses combined with instrument analysis. The results showed that the backbone of CZS-0-1 was (1 → 3)-β-L-Arap. Its O-4 and/or O-2 positions showed sulfate modification; additionally, it had 10% of (1 → 3)-β-D-Galp branches at the O-4 position of the (1 → 3)-β-L-Arap. The galactose side chains also had sulfate modification at the O-4 or O-6 position. The structure of CZS-0-1 was further confirmed by Top-down analysis of the oligosaccharides after oxidated hydrolysis by mass spectrometry. CZS-0-1 exhibited significant heparin-like anticoagulant activity. It exerted anticoagulant effects by inhibiting FIIa and FXa activities with the presence of heparin cofactors. The anticoagulant activity of CSZ-0-1 was closely related to the molecular weight, and the reduction of molecular weight may lead to a significant decrease in the anticoagulant activity. This study demonstrated that the green algae, Codium fragile can be considered as a useful resource for bioactive polysaccharides.

Comparative Study: Extraction Conditions and Antioxidant and Antibacterial activities of Gracilaria fisheri

Gracilaria fisheri (G. fisheri), sourced from the southern region of Thailand and recognized for its sulfated polysaccharides with diverse health benefits, underwent extraction under varying conditions by adjusting the ratio of water to ethanol and the duration of maceration. Six extraction conditions were systematically investigated, and their yields of extraction, sulfate content, antioxidant activity, and antimicrobial activity were compared. Among the conditions examined, the extraction utilizing solely water for a duration of 2 hrs. yielded the highest quantity (7.20±0.99 g) and highest sulfate content (215.86±2.67 µg/10 mg of crude extract). Furthermore, this extraction exhibited superior antioxidant activity as evidenced by the lowest IC50 values in DPPH (4.75±0.05 µg/mL) and ABTS (31.75±0.22 µg/mL) assays. Additionally, the extracts (10 mg/mL) manifested significant efficacy in inhibiting the growth of both Staphylococcus aureus (16.28±4.75 mm) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (15.33±3.27 mm) in comparison with the standard antibiotic, ciprofloxacin (5 µg), which exhibited inhibition zone diameters of 20.47±0.70 mm (Staphylococcus aureus) and 30.91±0.80 mm (Staphylococcus epidermidis). In conclusion, the most effective method for extracting G. fisheri is to solely utilize water for a duration of 2 hrs.

Sulfated polysaccharide from Apostichopus japonicus viscera exhibits anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo

Polysaccharides from sea cucumbers are known for their biological activities, but little is known about those from sea cucumber viscera. The present study isolated a sulfated polysaccharide (SCVP-2) from the viscera of Apostichopus japonicas, which had a molecular weight of 209.1 kDa. SCVP-2 comprised 66.3 % total sugars, 2.1 % uronic acid, 4.5 % proteins, and 25.5 % sulfate groups, containing glucosamine, galactosamine, glucose, galactose, and fucose. FT-IR and NMR analyses identified SCVP-2 as a fucoidan sulfate with sulfation patterns of the fucose branches as Fuc2S, Fuc4S, and Fuc0S. SEM and AFM analyses showed irregular clusters and linear conformations. SCVP-2 demonstrated strong anti-inflammatory properties both in vitro and in vivo. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in macrophage RAW264.7 cells, SCVP-2 significantly reduced nitric oxide (NO) and cytokine secretion (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α). Additionally, it downregulated the expression of these cytokine genes. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of SCVP-2 was related to the inhibition of the MAPKs and NF-κB pathways. SCVP-2's anti-inflammatory capacity was confirmed in acute inflammation models, including xylene-induced ear swelling and acetic acid-induced peritoneal capillary permeability, and in high-fat diet-induced systemic low-grade chronic inflammation. In conclusion, SCVP-2 exhibits significant anti-inflammatory activity, suggesting its potential for development as a functional food ingredient or therapeutic agent for inflammation-related diseases.

Comparative genomics identifies key adaptive traits of sponge-associated microbial symbionts.

Sponge microbiomes are often highly diverse making it difficult to determine which lineages are important for maintaining host health and homeostasis. Characterising genomic traits associated with symbiosis can improve our knowledge of which lineages have adapted to their host and what functions they might provide. Here we examined five microbial families associated with sponges that have previously shown evidence of cophylogeny, including Endozoicomonadaceae, Nitrosopumilaceae, Spirochaetaceae, Microtrichaceae and Thermoanaerobaculaceae, to better understand the mechanisms behind their symbiosis. We compared sponge-associated genomes to genomes found in other environments and found that sponge-specific clades were enriched in genes encoding many known mechanisms for symbiont survival, such as avoiding phagocytosis and defence against foreign genetic elements. We expand on previous knowledge to show that glycosyl hydrolases with sulfatases and sulfotransferases likely form multienzyme degradation pathways to break and remodel sulfated polysaccharides and reveal an enrichment in superoxide dismutase that may prevent damage from free oxygen radicals produced by the host. Finally, we identified novel traits in sponge-associated symbionts, such as urea metabolism in Spirochaetaceae which was previously shown to be rare in the phylum Spirochaetota. These results identify putative mechanisms by which symbionts have adapted to living in association with sponges.

Sulphated natural bio-polysaccharide grafted magnetic nanoparticles: Experimental and simulation towards safe and biocompatible polymeric membrane

Blood biocompatibility and permeability are major challenges that limit the wide implementation of polyethersulfone membranes for hemodialysis and bio-related applications. In this regard, polyethersulfone's surface modification is a commonly used strategy to improve permeability/selectivity, prevent protein-based fouling, and suppress the inflammation of the immune response. As a new approach to enhancing blood biocompatibility, this paper reports a feasible and effective method for the synthesis of heparin-like structures by modifying the polysaccharide guar gum macromolecule with magnetic nanoparticles and metanilic acid. The prepared magnetic, sulphated polysaccharide was blended with polyethersulfone to obtain a hydrophilic and biocompatible membrane surface. The modified membranes show an improved permeability of 144 L m−2 h−1 bar −1. A comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the protein adsorption on the membrane surface is also conducted. Blood compatibility tests reveal that the polyethersulfone-modified membrane demonstrates a low hemolysis rate, prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time, and low platelet adhesion. It is also performed simulation studies based on molecular docking between different guar gum-modified structures and each of human serum albumin and immunoglobulin. Accordingly, the docking results are in line with the practically obtained biocompatibility analyses. Through the obtained results, this study uniquely affirms that the modification of polyethersulfone membranes with magnetic and negatively charged guar gum has promising potential for effective usage in bio-related applications.

Cyanobacterial Ampholyte Hydrogels Developed by the Cationization of Sulfated Polysaccharides and Their Cell-Compatibility.

Sacran is a cyanobacterial supergiant polysaccharide with carboxylate and sulfate groups that exhibits antiallergic and antiinflammatory properties. However, its high anionic functions restrict cell compatibility. Quaternary ammonium groups were substituted to form sacran ampholytes, and the cell compatibility of the cationized sacran hydrogels was evaluated. The cationization process involved the reaction of N-(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)trimethylammonium chloride with the primary amine or hydroxyl groups of sacran. The degree of cationization ranged from 32 to 87% for sugar residues. Hydrogels of sacran ampholytes were prepared by annealing their dried sheets by thermal cross-linking; these hydrogels exhibited anisotropic expansion properties. The water contact angle on the hydrogels decreased from 26.5 to 15.3° with an increase in the degree of cationization, thereby enhancing hydrophilicity. The IC50 values of sacran ampholytes decreased with an increased degree of cationization, resulting in a reduction in cytotoxicity toward the L-929 mouse fibroblast cell line. This reduction was associated with an increase in the cell proliferation density after 3 days of incubation. Scanning electron microscopy images showed fibroblast intercellular connections. Therefore, the sacran ampholyte hydrogel exhibited increased hydrophilicity and cell compatibility, which is beneficial for various biomedical applications.