Sufi Identity Research Articles

Symbol Anthropology of Sufi Identity between Spiritual Meanings and Aesthetic Significance for Textile Printing Design

Symbol Anthropology of Sufi Identity between Spiritual Meanings and Aesthetic Significance for Textile Printing Design

Şeyh Ebü’l-Hasan Harakânî’nin Hayatı Hocaları ve Tasavvuf Düşüncesi Bağlamında Sûfî Kimliği

In this study, the Sufi identity of Sheikh Abu’l-Hasan Kharaqani, one of the Khorasan masters who lived in the 4th and 5th centuries of the Hijri era and who has not been sufficiently recognized or introduced in our country until recently, is discussed. Kharaqani was born in the village of Kharaqan in the north of the town of Bestam in the Semnan province of Iran in 352 Hijr as the child of a poor family. Although his real name was Ali, he became famous with the name Kharaqani because of the village of Kharaqan where he was born. As for Kharaqani’s education, almost all sources state that he was an illiterate at first, but later, by the grace of Allah, he learned the sciences and was endowed with innate knowledge. In addition, according to the information provided by limited sources, Kharaqani’s spiritual mentor and teacher, whom he met face to face, participated in his conversations and learned from him, was Shaykh Abu’l-‘Abbas Kassab-i ‘Amuli. The other was his spiritual sheikh and teacher, Bayezid Bistami, the sultan of the sultans, who lived about a century before him. It is known that Kharaqani received education from these masters and developed himself both intellectually and spiritually. Although there is no information about Kharaqani’s lineage and parents, there is some limited information about his wife and children. According to rumors, Kharaqani had two sons, one named Abu’l-Qasim, who for some unknown reason was suddenly beheaded one night and left at the door of his father's lodge, and the other, Ahmad, who continued his father’s legacy as a Sufi by continuing to live after him. When we look at the available sources, we see that although Kharaqani was accepted in Sufi circles as the sea of sorrow, the divine sun, the pole of the century, the sultan of the reigning sheikhs, the sultan of the people of tariqa and truth, and the sole imam, his wife, who was his closest and life partner, never accepted this spiritual aspect of him. One of the most debated issues about Sheikh Abu’l-Hasan Kharaqani today is about his grave. There are two different opinions about the place of his death and the location of his tomb. According to the first view, Kharaqani died in 425 AH (December 11, 1033) at the age of 73 in the village of Kharaqan, where he was born, and was buried there. According to the second view, which belongs to the Ottoman authors, Sheikh Abu’l-Hasan Kharaqani died outside the village of Kharaqan in Bestam, and there are even authentic sources that say that his tomb is located in the Turkish city of Kars. In addition, although there is no reliable information in the sources about when, how and for what purpose the sheikh came to Kars and how he died, Awliya Chalabi’s words about the disclosure of the sheikh’s grave led to the belief in and around Kars that Sheikh Kharaqani participated in the conquest of Kars and was martyred there. Kharaqani, also known as the man of the heart, has deeply influenced many Sufi figures in Sufi culture, as well as many sects. Kharaqani has always been praised by his contemporaries and the scholar Sufis who lived after him for leaving deep traces. This means that Kharaqani has a real weight in the history of Sufism, and that he has a superior intelligence and value alongside famous Sufis. Sheikh Kharaqani was a Sufi who internalized Islam wholeheartedly, who not only spoke eloquently, but also lived what he said; who embraced both the education and the marifah dimension of Sufism, both the line of asceticism and the line of wisdom, both the shari'a and the tariqa. Although it is not possible to discuss his multifaceted Sufism in detail in an article, we have tried to evaluate some of his views such as tawhid, murshid, disciple, tolerance, mujahada and faqr under subheadings.

Spiritual Legacy, Sufi Identity, and Mystical Knowledge in Taṣliya formulae

Abstract The tradition of taṣliya texts and practices in Sufism constitute an important source of Muslim intellectual and religious history. Previous studies have argued that these texts were more than mere cultural expressions of devotion to Prophet Muḥammad. Following this line of thought, this article seeks to deepen our grasp of the significance of taṣliya formulae in Sufi contexts. Emphasis will be placed on their role in popularizing various mystical-philosophical teachings and prophetical doctrines that shaped Muslims’ imaginations of the Prophet throughout the centuries.

An Earlier Copy of al-Suhrawardī’s ʿAwārif al-Maʿārif and Its Scribe, Abū Ṭāhir al-Ḥanafī

This paper introduces an accomplished Ḥanafī traditionist [muḥaddith] named Abū Ṭāhir ʿAbd al-Salām Ibn Abī al-Rabīʿ al-Shīrāzī (b.bef.590/1194, d.661/1263), and two newly-discovered manuscripts that shed light on his life, works, and networks. The first manuscript is an earlier copy of ʿUmar al-Suhrawardī’s (539-632/1145-1234) influential Sufi treatise, Benefits of Intimate Knowledge [ʿAwārif al-Maʿārif] that Abū Ṭāhir copied in 603/1206. In addition to updating the terminus ad quem of al-Suhrawardī’s masterpiece, the manuscript also preserves a significant audition [samāʿ] record. While Abū Ṭāhir transcribed this early copy, he seems to have neither participated in the later transmission of the work nor formed a Sufi identity. A well-connected traditionist who has not yet received scholarly attention, he wrote many works, none of which have been studied so far. This paper introduces his life and works, traces his immediate teachers and pupils in transmitting prophetic sayings, and analyzes a hitherto unstudied manuscript of his Forty Sayings on the Virtue of Praying for the Messenger of God [Al-Arbaʿūn fī Faḍīlat al-Ṣalāt ʿalā Rasūl Allāh]. The paper demonstrates that the study of al-Suhrawardī’s ʿAwārif al-Maʿārif by non-Sufi traditionists can be traced back to its earliest extant copy available to us.

Süleymaniye’de Bir Hâfız-ı Kütüb: Mehmet Hazmi Tura (öl. 1960) ve Yazma Eserlere Düştüğü Tetkik Notları

The content of this article has been shaped by nearly eight months of research. A note on the epilogue of a copy of Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s work Asrār al-Tanzīl, which is claimed to be the copy of the author, is the departure point of the article. The note asserting that the calligraphy is not by the author belongs to Mehmet Hazmi Tura. Tura, who lived in the transition period between the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic and stands out because of his Sufi identity, worked as the director of the Süleymaniye Library for approximately ten years. Regarding that there might be similar notes on other works, I examined the exemplary Laleli collection. In this context, I identified other notes belonging to Mehmet Hazmi Tura on the recto. The content of the article is largely based on the analysis of these notes. Additionally, I attempted to clarify the possible reasons that may have led Mehmet Hazmi Tura to take these notes, and for this reason, I drew attention to the intensive classification activity that focused on the creation of catalogs of manuscripts during the period of Tura. In this manner, I attempted to draw a general picture that makes it possible to examine at the notes written by Tura from a broader perspective such as cataloging the libraries and provide insights into his librarian career.

The Emergence and Development of Persianate Sufism: Khorasan, Ninth to Twelfth Centuries

Abstract This paper examines the emergence of Sufism and its differentiation from other religious trends in early Islamic Khorasan and Transoxania and traces the influence of Buddhism and Manichæism on the development of Sufism. The corresponding professionalization of the Sufi sheikhs in this formative process went hand in hand with the elaboration of Sufi mystical theory. The theoretical elaboration of Sufism consisted in the development of a theory of divine love culminating in the masterpieces of Farid al-Din ʿAttār on the eve of the Mongol invasion. The paper highlights the strong connection between Sufism and fotovvat (urban brotherhoods) during the emergence of Sufism in Khorasan and its gradual weakening that resulted from the increasing professionalization of Sufism and the formation of a distinct Persianate Sufi identity. The appropriation and transformation of royal symbolism in the Sufi texts is then analyzed in the last section.

The Spiritual Culture of Food: Eating Customs in Early Sufism

Studying food culture in early Sufism has been paid little scholarly attention, though it is able to afford us a way of reconstructing one of the pillars of early Sufi practice. This paper examines two aspects of Sufi food culture—individual and communal ‘food fashions’ with a special focus on 4th/10th-century Sufism. The exploration of early Sufi social relations is closely bound up with the food culture and eating manners of early Sufis. This profoundly social activity played a large role in forming and transforming collective Sufi identity. Al-Makkī's Qūt al-qulūb gains a special reference being the most important textbook on eating customs in the period under investigation.

L’après 2013 des confréries soufies égyptiennes : allégeance au pouvoir, dissensions internes et « renouveau du discours religieux »

This article discusses the role of some Sufi orders and some of their sheikhs who are members of the Higher Council of Egyptian Sufi Brotherhoods in the project to ‘renew religious discourse’ (tajdīd khitab al-dīnī) launched by President al-Sissi in 2015. In particular, it raises the question of the extent to which contemporary Sufi ulemas reclaim concepts belonging to the Islamic mystical tradition, such as that of tajdīd (renewal), in order to adapt it to the needs of the country’s political agenda. Finally, based on the case of the al-’Azamiya brotherhood, this article aims to question the role played by Sufi identity as a factor of political mobilisation.

Il ḏikr nella ṭarīqa Burhāniyya secondo l’insegnamento di Muḥammad ‘Uṯmān ‘Abduhu al-Burhānī

Abstract The ḏikr, the remembrance of God, is a Sufi ritual that is common to many Sufi orders and is performed by each of them in accordance to precise rules. While the rules may differ in its practice, the final aim is the same: coming near God through the repetition of His beautiful names. My paper is focused on the method introduced by šayḫ Muḥammad ‘Uṯmān ‘Abduhu al-Burhānī, a Sudanese Sufi master who lived and spread his teachings during the 20th century. Collective ḏikr is also an important element of the procedure of ḥaḍra, a traditional sufi ceremony which is performed regularly by the disciples of Burhāniyya once a week, as well as on important occasions, such as the mawlid in commemoration of the birth of the Prophet and of Sufi saints. Today the participation in this ritual has a crucial meaning for the Burhāniyya adherents, as it represents the affirmation of their Sufi identity within contemporary Muslim world.

The Advent and Schisms of Sufi Orders in Mozambique, 1896–1964

Sufi identity and rituals became widespread among local Muslims during the colonial era due to the expansion of the Shadhuliyya and the Qadiriyya orders. But the history of Sufism in Mozambique has been little explored. Portuguese colonial officials began paying closer attention to Islam in general and Sufism in particular only toward the end of the colonial period, especially in the late 1960s. This sudden interest was prompted by the independence war that took place mostly in northern Mozambique, where significant numbers of Muslims lived. The colonial Secret Service was mandated to find out how and why Muslims were involved in the independence struggle and in which ways they could be subverted. Otherwise there has been very limited research on Sufism, especially since Mozambique achieved independence. This article examines the historical context into which the orders arrived, and what prompted their significant expansion, as well as the reasons why they subsequently split up into eight autonomous branches. It is based on archival research in Mozambique and Portugal and fieldwork conducted at Mozambique Island, and in Angoche, Nampula, Pemba and Maputo cities.

The Role of Sufism in the Identity Construction, Mobilization and Political Activism of the Barelwi Movement in Pakistan

This article intends to analyze the forms of political activism of the Barelwi movement, one specific Sufism oriented religious movement rooted in the 19th century, which has gradually politicized through Pakistani history. It has played a widely ignored role in the politics of Pakistan, may it be in party politics, social movements, or through the islamization of society. There are today about forty Barelwi or-ganizations differently located on a scale of politicization, protest and radicalization. These “neo Sufi or-ders” have constructed a distinct Sufi identity and evolved different strategies to defend their version of Islam and fight for an Islamic State, an endeavor which they call the system of the Prophet (Nizam-e Mus-tafa). The organizational form they adopted is a mixture of a Sufi order, an activist association and for some, a political party. In the framework of the “War against terror”, mainly targeting their more reformist doctrinal challengers, the Barelwi presence in the public sphere has increased. The different groups of the movement have organized many conferences and demonstrations aiming both at denouncing the “talibanization” of Pakistan and at reasserting the role of Sufis in the promotion of an Islam of “peace, love and tolerance” in contemporary Pakistan. Paradoxically, this movement has also undergone a process of radicalization, thus blurring the lines between peaceful activism and violent direct action.

Claiming Heritage, Renewing Authority

This article discusses the role and status of Sufi groups in Bosnia-Herzegovina today, an issue where Turkish influences are unavoidable, irrespective of whether the focus is on conceptions of the Balkans’ Ottoman legacy or on contemporary arenas for religious alternatives in public life. Today old Sufi establishments face competition from groups with roots abroad both in terms of community leadership and the relationship between the individual groups and the state administration. Sufi-orientated activities play a role within the established Muslim congregations, the ritual aspects in particular attracting previously non-practicing Muslims. Many aspects of the Sufi theme can and should of course be related to the region’s Ottoman past, the authoritarian repression of religion in the Yugoslav Federation, and the war in the 1990s. These particular features have had an impact on religious practices as well as on the institutional organisation of Islam in the region. The attraction of the Sufi groups active today in Bosnia comes from two sources: first, references to authentic tradition, charismatic leaders, fellowships and groups that offer lifestyles in line with Muslim conduct, and secondly, their tools for establishing independent theological interpretations and for highly individualised spirituality. Bosnian Sufi identity balances between national heritage (with or without political connotations) and a search for spirituality (with or without affiliation to a group or an order); it connects to the contemporary world and its specific issues in a way that is relevant for Bosnians today, as well as being symptomatic of late-modern religion worldwide.

Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton (review)

Book Reviews 215 Dejene, Peasants, Agrarian Socialism and Rural Development in Ethiopia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987). For the Norwegian/IDR project, see Svein Ege, ed., Ethiopia: Problems ofSustainable Development :A ConferenceReport (Dragvoll, Norway: University of Trondheim, College of Arts and Science, Ethiopia Research Programme, 1990). 2.Elsewhere, he complains about rural folks' tendency to answer all queries on local conditions by choosing the "moderate" option on the scheduled questionnaires (pp. 35-36). 3.Though Mesfin seems to be arguing from a "moral economy" perspective , he has elsewhere denied the validity of this concept for Ethiopia. See Mesfin Wolde-Mariam, Rural Vulnerability to Famine in Ethiopia: 1958-1977 (Addis Ababa, 1984), 17. 4.Against one British writer who also headed an NGO, Mesfin makes a direct, but unsubstantiated, charge of plagiarism (p. 14, n. 5). Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton Edward Rice New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, 1990. 522 pp. + xxi. In developing source critiques, biographies are often overlooked. This is particularly true regarding the heavily used European travel literature about Ethiopia. James Bruce, Cornwallis Harris, and Richard Burton, to select a few British examples, all attained fame by writing about their adventures, thereby captivating the imaginations of casual readers as well as serious scholars. Yet Africanists have rarely employed these biographies . Rather, most critiques, embedded in discursive footnotes or other obscure passages, are merely contemporary judgments about prevailing European character traits, such as 19th-century attitudes toward sexuality, race, and religion. What the better biographies offer is insight into the personalities of the travelers by comparing their oftentimes iconoclastic views with predominant European mores. Edward Rice provides such a service for Richard Burton—perhaps the most controversial, yet colorful, 19th-century explorer. In his book Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton, Rice provides well researched evidence concerning Burton's chameleon-like persona—his ability to be oriental or occidental. Probing into Burton's formative years, Rice 226 Book Reviews shows how his peripatetic father dragged the family around Europe, providing opportunities for young Burton to learn other languages and, after achieving fluency, to assume different European cultural identities . His atypical education—he dropped out of Oxford—is most remarkable , for without mentorship Burton achieved acclaim as the preeminent Orientalist, being a linguist, eastern philologist and theologian, and cultural anthropologist. His conversions (the sincerity of them is much in debate) and his deep understanding of Islam with all the subtle distinctions between its sectarian theologies, allowed Burton to pass as a Sufi dervish. Rice makes it abundantly clear that Burton's travels to Mecca and Harar, as the first white man to enter these mysterious bastions of Islam, were not the reckless adventures of a person possessing a Byronic death wish—a characteristic he attributed to John Hanning Speke. Rather, Burton was fastidious in preparing for his expeditions, always attempting to anticipate each trial or predicament. Foreseeing an instance where his Sufi identity would be questioned, Burton developed a family genealogy as a "Pathan, born in India of Afghan parents" (p. 186). If doubts persisted about his command of Arabic, his knowledge of the Koran, and his eating, dressing, and ablution habits were intended to resolved any reservations. "Still very much the haji, in Arab dress, and wearing the green turban that was the privilege of those who had made the hajj" (p. 221), Burton channeled his energy, after returning from his celebrated trip to Mecca, by organizing an expedition to assess the Somali coast and penetrate into the forbidden city of Harar in the interior. Based largely on Burton's First Footsteps in East Africa; Or, an Exploration ofHarar, chapters 18 and 19 of Rice's book outline the discoveries and hardships that Burton encountered. Yet, and as a general criticism of biographies about literary fellows, Rice's third-person narrative loses the immediacy of the firsthand account. Gone is the exuberant, sometimes malicious, other times pedantic style of Burton that transports the reader into an exotic world far removed from his or her own.1 What Rice does provide is background into personality conflicts between Burton and many of his contemporaries—most notably Speke— as a microcosm of a larger societal conflict. Burton represented the aberrant individual struggling...