Sudanese Pounds Research Articles

Predictors of under-weight among children younger than 24 months in Nimule Border Town, Eastern Equatoria State, South Sudan: a community-based cross sectional study

BackgroundUnderweight is a public health problem globally, and more severe in South Sudan with wide sub-regional differences. In Nimule border town, which represents other border towns in South Sudan, data on underweight among children below two years is unavailable. Thus, this study set out to assess predictors of underweight among children younger than 24 months in Nimule border town, Magwi County, Eastern Equatoria State, South Sudan.MethodsAn analytical cross-sectional study was conducted in Nimule boarder town targeting 390 children younger than two years. Systematic sampling and simple random sampling methods were used. Data were collected through a researcher-administered questionnaire with both open and closed ended questions. Data was entered in EpiData and then exported into Statistical Package for Social Sciences research (SPSS) version 20 for analysis. Descriptive data analysis was conducted and data were summarized into frequencies and percentages, means with standard deviations, and medians with interquartile ranges. Bivariate analysis was conducted with the Chi-squared and Fisher's exact tests for categorical independent variables, and the student’s t-test for numerical variables. Finally, multivariate analysis was done via logistic regression analysis and results were stated as odds ratios (OR) with corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI). The level of statistical significance was set at 5%.ResultsOut of the total 390 participants, 112 (28.7%) were under weight. The study showed primary (aOR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.12–1.18; P = 0.095) and secondary (aOR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.12–1.17; P = 0.091 levels of education were associated with underweight but not tertiary level of education (aOR, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.21–2.74; p = 0.671). Household income of 5000 to 10,000 (aOR, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.10–0.68; P = 0.006) and above 10,000 (aOR, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.04–0.28; P < 0.001) South Sudanese pounds, supplementary feeding before 6 months (aOR; 0.01; 95% CI, 0.02–0.05; P < 0.001) were associated with underweight and irregular hand washing (aOR; 2.17; 95% CI, 1.14–4.11; P = 0.018) was associated with increased odds of underweight.ConclusionsThis study established a high prevalence of underweight. Maternal level of education particularly primary, secondary, higher household incomes in excess of 5,000 South Sudanese pounds reduced the risk of underweight. While irregular hand washing was a risk factor for underweight.

Economic Assessment for the Recreation Value of Al-Sunut Forest Reserve in Khartoum State, Sudan

This study aims to present a methodological framework for estimating the recreational value as part of the ecosystem’s services provided by the Sudanese forests. The number of visitors ready to pay for the forest’s services has been analyzed using the individual travel cost method (ITCM). The data were collected using questionnaires with 640 visitors randomly participating at the forest site, and respondents’ results were analyzed using SPSS software v21. Further analysis of ITCM was performed using analysis of moment structure. The linear regression model is used to estimate the effects of variables, like socioeconomic variables, on the frequency of the visits to assess the recreational value of the forest site. The results showed that the consumer’s excess for each visitor was 21,500 Sudanese pounds (SDG), and travel costs, age, income, distance, and family size of visitors affect the recreational use of the site. Most of the visitors were students, with the majority of their ages ranging between 21 and 30. An additional discovery indicated that higher-income visitors were more willing to travel. These encouraging findings are a helpful guide for planning the future management of forests for recreational uses. This meant that forests offer great recreational value, which might help the Forestry Office ensure that natural forests are planned for and used sustainably.

Financial Losses Arising from Cattle Organ and Carcass Condemnation at Lokoloko Abattoir in Wau, South Sudan.

Slaughterhouses in South Sudan mirror the economic losses resulting from cattle organs and carcass condemnation due to zoonotic and epizootic diseases of livestock, such as tuberculosis, cysticercosis, and hydatidosis in cattle. However, due to the war, slaughterhouse record keeping has been inconsistent in South Sudan, and thus the estimation of diseases in cattle and their impact may be underestimated. Therefore, this study was conducted to estimate the major causes of carcasses and organ condemnation of cattle slaughtered at Lokoloko abattoir and the resulting financial losses. A cross-sectional active abattoir survey involving antemortem and postmortem examinations was conducted on 310 cattle between January 2021 and March 2021. Furthermore, five-year (September 2015-September 2020) retrospective data on meat inspection records were also collected and analyzed. During the antemortem inspection of the active abattoir survey, 103 (33.2%) cattle had signs of disease. These signs included herniam 17 (5.5%), local swelling 16 (5.2%), lameness 15 (4.8%), emaciation 13 (4.2%), blindness 12 (3.9%), depression 11 (3.5%), pale mucus membrane 7 (2.3%), nasal discharge 5 (1.6%), lacrimation 4 (1.3%), and salivation 03 (0.97%). Postmortem inspection revealed gross pathological findings on 180 (58.6%) carcasses, out of which 47 (26.1%) livers and 31 (17.2%) hearts were condemned due to various causes. The active abattoir survey and the retrospective data revealed that tuberculosis, fascioliasis, hydatidosis, and heart cysticercosis were the leading causes of condemnation of carcasses and organs. In the active abattoir survey, a total of 19,592,508 South Sudanese Pounds, equivalent to US$29,686 was lost from organ condemnation, while in the retrospective data; the overall direct financial loss during the five years was estimated to be 299,225,807 South Sudanese Pounds equivalent to US$453,372. This study revealed that bacterial and parasitic diseases were the common causes of carcass and organ condemnations and caused significant financial losses at Lokoloko abattoir in Wau, South Sudan. Therefore, there is a need for training farmers on cattle disease management, heightened meat inspections, and proper disposal of condemned meat.

Production of Baby Food from Some Local Products as an Alternative to Some Imported Baby Meals for Rural Areas around Kosti City

This study was conducted at the University of El Imam El Mhadi, White Nile State, and Kosti, Sudan. The objectives of this study is to prepare baby food or meal from some local products (Wheat, Sesame, Date and milk) and use these locally prepared foods as a an alternative to some imported baby food or meals. These are Cereals, Cerelac and Ridielac, to make use of some available local products and use the cost of the imported baby meals in hard currency for others necessary imported items. Some chemical analysis were done to show the nutritive values of these local products, also sensory evaluation was done to show the acceptability of these meals by adults and children. The results show that, the amount of protein in 100 gram for each of these local products were found to be (13.70%, 5.25%, 21%and 3.55%) for wheat , date, sesame and milk respectively, while the amount of carbohydrates were found to be (59.58%, 49.69% , 4.76% and 4.81% ) for wheat, dates ,sesame and milk respectively ,fat was found to be (2.99%, 0.55% , 53.06%and 4.25 %) for wheat, dates, sesame and milk respectively. The moisture content was found to be 11%, 33.05%, 6.91% and86.24% for wheat, dates, sesame and milk respectively. Ash content was found to be 1.78%, 9.47%, 4.75% and 1.15% for wheat, dates, sesame and milk respectively. The result of sensory evaluation done by adults, show that, there is a significant difference (p? 0.05) in color, smell, taste, texture and general acceptability for this local baby food as compared with these imported baby food or meals, but the majority of these panelist said that, the local meal is better than the three imported meals.16 out of 20 children accepted this meal and didn’t refuse it. On the other hand feeding of 20 children with this meal show no signs or symptoms of allergy, vomiting or diarrhea as the effect of this meal. The price of 100 gram of locally prepared meal is far less than the price of each 100 gram of the three imported meals individually. The difference between local meal and Cereals was found to be 32.4 Sudanese Pounds and the difference between local meal and Cerelac was found to be 46.15 Sudanese Pounds while the difference between local meal and Redielac was found to be 39.9 Sudanese Pounds.

Role of socioeconomic factors in developing mycetoma: Results from a household survey in Sennar State, Sudan.

Mycetoma is a chronic, progressively destructive disease of subcutaneous tissues and bones caused by certain species of bacteria or fungi. We conducted a cross-sectional community-based study alongside mapping of mycetoma in five administrative units with high mycetoma endemicity in the Eastern Sennar Locality, Sennar State, Sudan. A household survey was administered which included questions about the household members, household characteristics, economic activity and history of mycetoma. A clinical examination was conducted on all members of the household. If mycetoma was suspected, an individual questionnaire was completed collecting demographic, clinical and epidemiological data as well as information on the use of health care and associated costs. Geographical coordinates and photos of the lesions were taken, and the affected persons were referred to the medical centre for confirmation of the diagnosis and treatment. We compared the characteristics of households with confirmed cases of mycetoma with those without confirmed cases, and individuals with confirmed mycetoma with those in whom mycetoma was not confirmed. In total 7,798 households in 60 villages were surveyed; 515 suspected cases were identified and 359 cases of mycetoma were confirmed. Approximately 15% of households with mycetoma had more than one household member affected by this disease. Households with mycetoma were worse off with respect to water supply, toilet facilities, electricity and electrical appliances compared to the survey households. Only 23% of study participants with mycetoma had sought professional help. Of these, 77% of patients travelled an average of six hours to visit a medical facility. More than half of patients had to pay towards their treatment. The estimated average cost of treatment was 26,957 Sudanese pounds per year (566 US dollars, exchange rate 2018). Results of this survey suggest that agricultural practices and reduced access to sanitation and clean water can be risk factors in developing mycetoma. Poor access to health care and substantial financial costs were barriers to seeking treatment for mycetoma.

Determinants of Out-of-Network Utilization of Care Among Insured Clients Under the National Health Insurance Fund of Sudan.

PurposeKnowledge of insured clients' utilization behavior is essential for developing evidence-based interventions for reform activities. This study explored the magnitude and determinants of voluntary out-of-network physician visit utilization among an insured population under the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) of Sudan.MethodsThis study was a cross-sectional survey conducted at the primary healthcare centers of NHIF in Al Jazirah state in Sudan. A structured interview questionnaire was used to collect data related to socio-economic and health insurance characteristics of NHIF clients and to assess their utilization behavior. Data were collected from September to October 2021.ResultsOf 768 NHIF clients who were interviewed (mean age 46 years, 55.1% females), 63.2% reported using out-of-network physician visits during the last six months prior to the interview. The median out-of-pocket payment for the last out-of-network physician visit was 5000 Sudanese pounds. The regression analysis revealed that clients’ gender, marital status, self-reported health, overall rating of the quality of care, rating of the general practitioner care, and ease of referral to a specialist were the significant determinants for seeking out-of-network physician care.ConclusionA high magnitude of out-of-network physician visit utilization was found among the insured NHIF clients of Al Jazirah state in Sudan. Policymakers should address issues identified in the current study to reduce patients’ leakage to out-of-network services.

Prevalence and Financial Losses of Cystic Echinococcosis in Slaughtered Goats at Gumbo Slab in Juba County, South Sudan

A cross-sectional study was conducted at Gumbo slaughter slab in Juba, Central Equatoria State (CES) in South Sudan, between October and December 2015, to determine the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis (CE) and to estimate the direct economic losses associated with condemnation of infected organs in slaughtered goats. A thorough postmortem examination was conducted on carcasses of a total of 1126 goats selected by systematic random sampling for detection of CE in the lungs, liver, heart, kidneys, and the spleen. Moreover, CE-related direct financial losses were estimated by using a standardized formula. The overall prevalence of CE was found to be 281 (24.9%, 95% CI 22.5–27.6). Furthermore, old age (OR = 2.61, p value &lt; 0.001), Mubende breed (OR = 2.97, p value &lt; 0.001), and Ugandan geographical origin (OR = 2.97, p value &lt; 0.001) were associated with higher prevalence of CE. The lungs were the most affected organ with a prevalence of 55.2% followed by liver (44.1%), and the spleen (0.07%). A direct CE-related monetary loss of 78,820 South Sudanese Pounds (SSP) per year was estimated. This loss is equivalent to USD 43,788. In conclusion, CE is considerably prevalent and is associated with significant direct financial losses among goats slaughtered at Gumbo slaughter slab in Juba, CES, South Sudan.

Exponential GARCH Model with Exogenous Covariate for South Sudanese Pounds—USD Exchange Rate Volatility: On the Effects of Conflict on Volatility

The empirical models that explain the variation in exchange rate on the ground of macroeconomic fundamentals only are usually bias on the account of omitted variable hence, they cannot decently explain variations in exchange rate. However, if socio-political determinants, like civil wars, violence are incorporated in simple time series specification, the variations of exchange rate can be understood better. Apparently in developing countries like South Sudan where socio-political problems like conflict are most prevalent, the subject remains largely under-explored. This paper therefore, applies ARMA (p, q)-EGARCH (p, q) model with exogenous covariate for SSP-USD exchange rate volatility to examine the effect of conflict as an exogenous variable on exchange rate volatility. The proposed model is ARMA (1, 2)-EGARCH (1, 1) class of models with exogenous covariate in both mean and volatility equations. An empirical application of the proposed model is demonstrated by incorporating the conflict index as covariate in both mean and volatility equations of the proposed model. Parameter estimation was performed using maximum likelihood estimation method. The estimation results with classical maximum likelihood estimation method suggested that exchange rate volatility was persistent as evidenced by higher values of the coefficient of the parameter that accounts for persistence (β) in conditional volatility. Furthermore, the parameter for leverage effect in our models was found to be significant. The results showed that the effects of conflict on volatility of SSP-USD was found positive and statistically significant in both equations indicating that higher prevalence of conflict makes the exchange rate to be more volatile.

Characterization of Pathogenic Bacteria Isolated from Sudanese Banknotes and Determination of Their Resistance Profile.

Background Banknotes are one of the most exchangeable items in communities and always subject to contamination by pathogenic bacteria and hence could serve as vehicle for transmission of infectious diseases. This study was conducted to assess the prevalence of contamination by pathogenic bacteria in Sudanese banknotes, determine the susceptibility of the isolated organisms towards commonly used antibiotics, and detect some antibiotic resistance genes. Methods This study was carried out using 135 samples of Sudanese banknotes of five different denominations (2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 Sudanese pounds), which were collected randomly from hospitals, food sellers, and transporters in all three districts of Khartoum, Bahri, and Omdurman. Bacterial prevalence was determined using culture-based techniques, and their sensitivity patterns were determined using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method. Genotypic identification was carried out using PCR and 16S rDNA sequencing. Antibiotic resistance genes of some isolates were detected using PCR technique. Results All Sudanese banknotes were found to be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. Klebsiella pneumoniae was found to be the most frequent isolate (23%), whereas Bacillus mycoides (15%) was the most abundant Gram-positive isolate. There was a significant relationship between the number of isolates and the banknote denomination with p value <0.05 (the lower denomination showed higher contamination level). Our study has isolated bacteria that are resistant to penicillins and cephalosporins. Multidrug-resistant strains harboring resistant genes (mecA, blaCTX-M, and blaTEM) were also detected. Conclusion All studied Sudanese banknotes were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, including multidrug-resistant strains, and may play a significant role in the transmission of bacterial infections.

Economic Failure and Change in Sudan

By the end of last August 2016, Banks clients in Sudan were facing difficulties in withdrawing their checks. The ATMs were out of cash, and the available cash reserves were low. In the 9-10, most of the banks could not deliver services with the excuse that they had no liquidity. It was before the Great Eid (feast) and there were heavy rush by the public to have cash funds required for their expenditures during a long holiday. There were reports that they withdrew 2 Trillion Sudanese pounds before the holiday from ATMs and banks. That figure can be exaggerated. However, the accelerating inflation rates can justify the great needs for people to use for buying needs during that time. Greater emphasis on the accuracy for that amounts of money should be compared with rumors about intentions of the financial authorities to limit money supply in markets and curb inflation in addition to restrict hard currencies dealings in the black market. Those facts should be correlated with the increasing devaluations in the Sudanese currency and the tendencies of people to save the value in dollars or other available hard currencies in expectation of new governmental policies. In the following we investigate the role of fiscal and monetary policies on inflation in Sudan. The study assessed the impact of money supply, exchange rate, gross domestic product (GDP), budget deficit and government expenditure on inflation. It has adopted a descriptive and analytical method to achieve the goal. In particular, it has relied on empirical investigation based on descriptive statistic and econometric modeling. The results shows that several monetary, fiscal and structural factors, namely, money supply, budget deficit and shrinking of gross domestic product are simultaneously influencing inflation in Sudan. While exchange rate and government expenditure are found to be with effect on inflation rate, these findings may explain the fact that inflation depends on the way government expenditure is financed rather than the magnitude of the expenditure itself. As a role, it is recommended that the government should depend on real sources in financing budget deficit rather than monetizing deficit by and borrowing from the central Bank, which have significant impact on increasing money supply. That can be a reason for the continuous inability of banks to deliver services to clients to the edge of announcing that there is No liquidity and that the Central Bank had to be committed to print new banknotes, even with the knowledge that can accelerate in inflation rates which are already rapidly increasing. That is also related to the decreasing rates of real resources or inability to collect more taxes and tariffs to ensure effective role in curbing budget deficit and controlling inflation. Moreover, it is related with cash inflows combined with an appropriate environment for investment and best 4 utilization of Sudan’s national resources that stimulate gross domestic product (GDP) and reduce inflation rates.

General Practitioners' Prescribing Patterns at Primary Healthcare Centers in National Health Insurance, Gezira, Sudan.

BackgroundThe appropriate use of medicines is essential for the provision of quality health services, patient safety, and the rational use of health resources. In Sudan, general practitioners (GPs) provide 80 % of insured patients’ health services. Pharmaceutical service costs have been increasing since 2010.ObjectivesWe aimed to use the World Health Organization (WHO) and International Network for the Rational Use of Drugs prescribing indicators to assess prescription quality among GPs in different types of primary healthcare centers (PHCCs) within the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) in Gezira State, Sudan.MethodWe followed established WHO guidelines to conduct a cross-sectional retrospective study. The study was carried out over 6 months and involved 197 GPs with valid prescriptions, representing 90 % of the total study population of 220 GPs. We collected a systematic random sample of 100 prescriptions for each GP and used Stata 12 to analyze the 19,700 prescriptions.ResultsThe mean ± standard deviation number of medications was 2.55 ± 1.32 per patient; 46.32 % of drugs prescribed were generics; 54.71 % of prescriptions were for antibiotics and 12.84 % were for injectable formulations; and 81.19 % of prescribed medicines were from the NHIF medicines list. The overall Index of Rational Drug Prescribing (IRDP) indicator was 3.39, and the average cost per prescription was 40.57 Sudanese pounds (SDG). Disregarding prescriptions for antibiotics, the prescribing quality of GPs in NHIF facilities was farther from optimal prescribing practice than those in State Ministry of Health-owned facilities and facilities owned by private groups, universities, and non-governmental organizations.ConclusionThe present study provides strong evidence of irrational prescribing practice among GPs, with significant disparities, particularly in terms of antibiotic overuse, generic drug underuse, and adherence to the NHIF medicines list.

Microbiological Safety Levels of South Sudanese Bank Notes in Circulation at University of Juba Food Restaurants

Food borne infections arise from either a host of bacteria, viruses and parasites originating in food or pathogens introduced through cross contamination. This study assessed the potential microbiological cross contamination risk posed by South Sudanese Pounds in circulation at University of Juba food restaurants by examining the level of microorganisms on banknotes. Bacterial contamination on the South Sudanese Pounds in circulation at University of Juba were determined using currencies collected from five different food serving points coded A,B,C, D and E respectively. From each food serving points, five samples of banknotes 5, 10and 25 South Sudanese Pounds denominations were randomly selected and their surface bacterial content enumerated. High and varying proportions of Total Coli forms (TC), Escherichia coli (&lt;em&gt;E. Coli&lt;/em&gt;) and Staphylococcus aureus (&lt;em&gt;S. aureus&lt;/em&gt;) were detected. Findings revealed a significant correlation between microbial levels and the denominations of the bank notes, with the smallest having the highest levels of microorganisms per square centimeter. However, there was no specific pattern in contamination levels between banknotes obtained from the different food points. Another factor that influenced the level of contamination was period the banknotes took in circulation with the older notes having higher levels of microorganisms. High levels of microorganisms on banknotes coupled with unhygienic food handling practices predisposes consumers to health risks. Strategies to reduce the risk of transmission of pathogens from the South Sudanese Pounds with specific emphasis on awareness programs and improvement in food hygiene &amp;amp; handling practices through physical contact between food and money in restaurants at University of Juba were mentioned in order to reduce risk of food borne illness or otherwise potentially lethal outbreak of food borne diseases.

Analysis of Foreign Currencies Exchange Rate and Sudan Macroeconomic Variables

Since the beginning of the year 2012, foreign currencies exchange rates against the domestic Sudanese currency saw continuous rise. That happened even though there were universal fluctuations for them due to continuous financial crisis. The continuous appreciations of foreign currencies in Sudan have economic negative impacts. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to estimate the effects of Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) on Sudan trade balance (TB). The present situation is confusing for all in Sudan with discrepancies in market effective foreign currencies and government declared prices. For example, one US$ in the market is worth 5.2 Sudanese pounds, while government price is only 2.62. That generates deep gap between imports real cost and domestic market values. The same is true for exports which are valued below REER and that minimize producers' profitability. There studies that have investigated in the short-run and long run effects of real effective exchange rate on trade balance. The first group has employed at aggregate level between Sudan and the rest of world. The second group has used the trade at the bilateral level between Sudan and her major trading partners, China as a largest export and import partner of Sudan. Since a country's trade balance behavior is directly depending on real effective exchange rate (REER), foreign income (Y*) and real domestic income (Y), so, we will include all these variables in our model to test the general case (Sudan-world case) and specific case (Sudan-China case). This study uses unit root tests, co-integration techniques, Error Correction Model and impulse response function with time series data covering the periods of 1981Q1-2009Q4. The main findings of this study are that REER have a significant expected impact as positive in long-run and negative in short-run on the Sudan bilateral trade balance with China and on the total trade balance. The Granger Causality test suggests that REER does Granger causes trade balance for all cases of study. The study clearly demonstrates that real devaluations of exchange rate in Sudan have been negatively associated with improvement of trade balance. Hence, devaluation of currency as a whole does not seem to be beneficial for Sudan exports. That is because the country's real economic sectors, agriculture and industry have deteriorated in their productive abilities, mostly due to oil dependency syndrome and negligence of the other economic sectors.

Impacts of Real Effective Exchange Rate on Sudan Macroeconomic Variables

The purpose of this study is to estimate the effects of Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) on Sudan trade balance (TB). The present situation is confusing for all in Sudan with discrepancies in market effective foreign currencies and government declared prices. For example, one US$ in the market is worth 5.2 Sudanese pounds, while government price is only 2.62. That generates deep gap between imports real cost and domestic market values. The same is true for exports which are valued below REER and that minimize producers' profitability. There studies that have investigated in the short-run and long run effects of real effective exchange rate on trade balance. The first group has employed at aggregate level between Sudan and the rest of world. The second group has used the trade at the bilateral level between Sudan and her major trading partners, China as a largest export and import partner of Sudan. Since a country's trade balance behavior is directly depending on real effective exchange rate (REER), foreign income (Y*) and real domestic income (Y), so, we will include all these variables in our model to test the general case (Sudan-world case) and specific case (Sudan-China case). This study uses unit root tests, co-integration techniques, Error Correction Model (ECM) and impulse response function with time series data covering the periods of 1981Q1-2009Q4. The main findings of this study are that REER have a significant expected impact as positive in long-run and negative in short-run on the Sudan bilateral trade balance with China and on the total trade balance. The Granger Causality test suggests that REER does Granger causes trade balance for all cases of study. The study clearly demonstrates that real devaluations of exchange rate in Sudan have been negatively associated with improvement of trade balance. Hence, devaluation of currency as a whole does not seem to be beneficial for Sudan exports. That is because the country's real economic sectors, agriculture and industry have deteriorated in their productive abilities, mostly due to oil dependency syndrome and negligence.

Always on call

Always on call

Effect of strategic supplementary feeding on ewe productivity under range conditions in North Kordofan, Sudan

Strategic supplementary feeding practices were imposed on ewes prior to mating (flushing) and during late pregnancy (steaming-up) at two locations in North Kordofan, Sudan. The objective was to improve ewe reproductive performance and increase lamb birth weight. A completely randomized block design was used and the results analyzed from the economic point of view. Strategic supplementary feeding of ewes increased conception and lambing rates ( P<0.01), reduced abortions ( P<0.01), and resulted in higher lamb birth weights ( P<0.05). The treatment also reduced ewe weight loss ( P<0.05) and caused no ewe mortality. Respective lambing rates for the supplemented and control ewes were 91.7 and 41.7%. Strategic supplementary feeding was economically more advantageous and could accrue up to 382540 additional Sudanese pounds (US $273.24) in returns. It was concluded that steaming-up and flushing are essential for improving ewe reproductive performance, increasing lamb birth weights, and minimizing pregnancy stress of ewes. Hence, the practice is recommended in similar ecological zones to improve productivity of desert sheep.

Economics of Tray Culture of the Mother‐of‐pearl Shell Pinctada margaritifera in the Red Sea, Sudan

AbstractAn economic analysis of tray cultured oysters in Dongonab Bay, Red Sea was conducted based on production costs collected by the Red Sea Fisheries Research Centre. The analysis showed that oflbottom oyster farming was economically attractive at a price around 1.5 Sudanese pounds (US $0.75) per kilogram of shell and discount rates of 40% or less.

Construction on Expansive Soils in Sudan

Expansive soils prevail over a large area of Sudan and have caused significant damages to irrigation systems, water lines, sewer lines, buildings, roads and other structures located on these soils. Damage caused by expansive soils is estimated by the writers to exceed $6,000,000 (8,000,000 Sudanese pounds) annually. The paper summarizes typical damages to show the type, extent and causes of damages and provides information on current design methods being used in Sudan to reduce potential damages. Based on soil surveys and soil properties collected from more than 30 sites, over one‐third of Sudan's 2,600,000km2 area may have potentially expansive soils. It is recommended that all potential construction sites in the Clay Plain be evaluated for expansive soils.

Incidence of peanut mottle virus in the Sudan Gezira and its effect on yield

Peanut mottle virus disease is widespread in the Sudan Gezira Scheme. The main symptom is a mild mottle without apparent reduction in shoot growth. Leaf necrosis and deformation are occasionally observed. Disease incidence in the field varied from 2% to 9% and from 3% to 92% in 1977 and 1978, respectively. In 1977, 82% of the fields had a disease incidence between 11% and 60% and in 1978, 84% of the fields had a disease incidence between 1% and 50%. The estimated losses in value were 2.3 and 1.0 million Sudanese pounds in 1977 and 1978, respectively. The results of the two seasons revealed that some fields had significantly less disease infection. These fields are potential sites for PMV‐free seed production in the Gezira.