Successful L2 Research Articles

The Benefits of Activating Self-Regulation Behavior in Worldwide EFL Speaking Learning Contexts

Transforming worldwide EFL learners into more proficient L2 speakers is a challenging mission as speaking is not merely about the meaningful communication occurrences among interlocutors but also the strong willingness shouldered by EFL learners to regulate their certain behaviors and actions to achieve the targeted learning objectives fully. The previous research results strongly suggested that EFL educators establish, nurture, and reinforce their learners’ self-regulation at the commencement of speaking-focused learning activities in order to make them more confident L2 speakers who are willing to share their thoughts with other classroom learning community members. This present small-scale library study was a little attempt initiated by the researcher to investigate the potential benefits of activating EFL learners’ self-regulation behavior in worldwide speaking learning contexts. To fulfill this main study objective, the researcher conducted a thematic analysis by reviewing 30 previous self-regulation studies conducted globally to obtain more comprehensible research results. The publication years of these 30 published self-regulation articles ranged from 2013 until 2022 to produce more reliable research results. Based on the thematic analysis, there were two major themes yielded namely: (1) Highly self-regulated EFL learners can become more organized L2 speakers, and (2) highly self-regulated EFL learners can transform into more successful L2 speakers. In conformance with these research results, second language-speaking learning instructors are strongly encouraged to cultivate self-regulation behavior within EFL learners at the beginning of learning activities to gradually make them become more high-achieving and self-reliant speakers defining the best strategies suitable for their current speaking learning situations.

The Impacts of Self-Efficacy on EFL Learners’ Speaking Skills

In L2 speaking learning contexts, highly self-efficacious EFL learners are characterised as speakers capable of sharing their ideas confidently with other interlocutors as they have put a higher degree of belief towards their current speaking competencies. In support of self-efficacy, EFL learners are strongly willing to proceed with the complex speaking learning processes as they are prompted to foster their L2 communicative competencies to the utmost level. This small-scale library study was initiated to reveal the potential impacts of self-efficacy on EFL learners’ speaking skills. To achieve the primary study objective, 30 previous self-efficacy studies were profoundly reviewed with a thematic analysis to yield more understandable and trustworthy research results. Based on the obtained research results, it is strongly suggested that second language-speaking learning instructors infuse the robust construction of self-efficacy within EFL learners since they can progressively transform into more successful and confident L2 speakers. In conclusion, a higher degree of self-efficacy growth allows EFL learners to persistently confront various speaking learning impediments due to the successful employment of their speaking learning strategies mutually interlinked with the current speaking learning situations. Keywords: Self-efficacy; Speaking skills; EFL learners.

Asymmetrical Equivalence Classification – Cluster Affrication vs. Lenis Stops in the Speech of Polish Learners of English

According to the Speech Learning Model (Flege 1995), successful L2 phonological acquisition is facilitated by the formation of new phonetic categories in the L2. However, category formation may be hindered by equivalence classification, wherein speakers perceptually merge L1 and L2 sounds. This study examines L1 Polish learners of English, including a phonetic parameter that has received minimal attention: affrication of /tr-dr/ clusters in English. Two groups of speakers, comprising B1 level and C2 level learners, produced word lists containing both initial /tr-dr/ clusters, as well as singleton voiced stops /b, d, g/. The results revealed an asymmetry: both groups failed to suppress pre-voicing in /b, d, g/, but were successful in producing affricated clusters. A new category has therefore been formed for the clusters, but not for the singleton stops. Phonological implications of this finding are discussed.

Phonetic accommodation in non-native directed speech supports L2 word learning and pronunciation

This study assessed whether Non-native Directed Speech (NNDS) facilitates second language (L2) learning, specifically L2 word learning and production. Spanish participants (N = 50) learned novel English words, presented either in NNDS or Native-Directed Speech (NDS), in two tasks: Recognition and Production. Recognition involved matching novel objects to their labels produced in NNDS or NDS. Production required participants to pronounce these objects’ labels. The novel words contained English vowel contrasts, which approximated Spanish vowel categories more (/i-ɪ/) or less (/ʌ-æ/). Participants in the NNDS group exhibited faster recognition of novel words, improved learning, and produced the /i-ɪ/ contrast with greater distinctiveness in comparison to the NDS group. Participants’ ability to discriminate the target vowel contrasts was also assessed before and after the tasks, with no improvement detected in the two groups. These findings support the didactic assumption of NNDS, indicating the relevance of the phonetic adaptations in this register for successful L2 acquisition.

Instructed Second Language Acquisition Research and Its Relevance to Classroom Practices

Instructed SLA research has gained considerable attention due to the widespread interest in the role of instruction in language development. This study critically reviews several influential SLA studies on classroom instruction in second language learning. The aim is to assist teachers in delivering well-informed and relevant instruction to L2 learners to enable them to meet their language learning expectations and participate in real-world practices. The paper examines the focus on form and meaning-based instructions as the most common approaches utilized in language learning settings. It critically evaluates several SLA research findings on L2 classroom instruction and interprets their data using comparisons, assessments, and descriptions. Based on these interpretations, the paper ends with a discussion of pedagogical implications for teaching second language learners, taking into account the learning mechanisms employed by learners, and how teachers, via effective instructions, can use these mechanisms to facilitate successful L2 learning.

Insights into L2 connected speech segmentation: A gating experiment with listeners of different English proficiency levels

The relative contribution of bottom-up (i.e. acoustic-phonetic) and top-down (i.e. contextual) cues for successful L2 online segmentation is still a matter of debate. This study used the gating paradigm to investigate the segmentation processes of adult L2 English listeners with different proficiency levels, by looking at the type of cues they exploit and how they revise their hypotheses as connected speech is progressively revealed. Twenty-one French and Tunisian undergraduates were selected from a larger pool (n=226) and identified as skilled (n=11) and unskilled (n=10) listeners based on their scores on standardized English listening and vocabulary tests. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance and qualitative analysis were performed on the obtained data. Overall, this study provides supporting L2 evidence for the hierarchical nature of the multiple speech segmentation cues (Mattys et al., 2005). The results indicated an early effect of context on segmentation that was independent of L2 proficiency when the context is constraining. In non-constraining contexts, successful segmentation is delayed for both groups with L2 unskilled listeners needing far more bottom-up information to process input and revise their segmentation hypotheses. We conclude that, in online L2 speech segmentation, what distinguishes proficient from non-proficient listeners is their efficient processing of bottom-up cues. Pedagogical implications are provided hoping to help L2 English teachers (and materials developers) focus on bottom-up training to improve their learners’ real-time comprehension competence.

Individual differences in L2 listening proficiency revisited: Roles of form, meaning, and use aspects of phonological vocabulary knowledge

Abstract The present study revisits the differential roles of form, meaning, and use aspects of phonological vocabulary knowledge in L2 listening proficiency. A total of 126 Japanese English-as-a-foreign-language listeners completed the TOEIC Listening test, working memory and auditory processing tests, the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire, and several tasks designed to tap into three broad aspects of phonological vocabulary knowledge: (1) the ability to access phonological forms without any orthographic cues (phonologization), (2) the ability to recognize words regardless of the talker (generalization), and (3) the ability to determine the semantic and collocational appropriateness of words in global contexts in a fast and stable manner (automatization). Whereas the perceptual, cognitive, and metacognitive variables made relatively small contributions to L2 listening proficiency (0.4%–21.3%), the vocabulary factors explained a large amount of the variance (77.6%) in the full regression model (R2 = .507). These large lexical effects uniquely derived from the three different aspects of phonological vocabulary knowledge—automatization (55.3%), phonologization (20.8%), and generalization (1.5%). The findings suggest that successful L2 listening skill acquisition draws on not only various levels of phonological form-meaning mapping (phonologization, generalization) but also the spontaneous and robust retrieval of such vocabulary knowledge in relation to surrounding words (automatization).

“Three months on, I still sound like an Anglophone”: Tales of Success and Failure told by English and French Tandem Partners

This paper reports on two ways in which success and failure can be operationalized and quantified in a non-institutional L2 learning context such as language tandem setting. We draw on the SITAF database, where we gathered 25 hours of video-recorded conversations held by 21 pairs, each consisting of a native speaker of English and a native speaker of French. The tandems performed collaborative tasks in both languages, thus giving each participant ample opportunity to be both the ‘expert’ and the ‘novice’ (learner) part of the dialogue. The tandem partners met regularly and autonomously outside of the recording sessions, and making progress in their L2 was one of their declared goals. Two possible measures of success in achieving this goal are: (1) the quality and quantity of learner uptake which followed the expert’s corrective feedback (CF) during the recorded conversations. Significant differences between the two L1 groups were observed: while 52% of the CF given by the native French speakers met with total uptake, over 52% of the English CF generated no uptake at all; (2) the participants’ own narratives of progress, as both the experts and the learners, obtained through questionnaires they filled out at the end of the program. Our study aims to contribute to the discussion on the stakes of successful L2 informal learning (with a focus on the acquisition of L2 pronunciation) by adopting a perspective which combines learners’ spoken output data and learners’ perceptions of their own language learning activity.

Individual Differences in Computer Assisted Language Learning Research. Mirosław Pawlak & Mariusz Kruk (eds.) (2023). Routledge, pages144. ISBN: 978-1-03214-588-4

Over half of a century, second language (L2) psychological factors have been heatedly investigated by L2 practitioners and computer assisted language learning (CALL) researchers who devote their continuous efforts to gain some comprehensive understandings of what learner-external and internal factors may contribute to successful L2 learning outcomes (Li, Meng, Tian, Zhang, & Xiao, 2021). For the learner-external factors, contextual settings (outdoor instruction vs. indoor instruction), availability of resources (paper-based vs. digital-based) and interaction modes (e.g., corrective feedback and collaborative learning) have been regularly discussed in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Apart from the learner-external factors, an emerging array of publications with different foci have begun to offer insights into the learner-internal factors, viz. individual difference (ID) factors, such as learner demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, age of acquisition, and language proficiency, etc.), aptitude, working memory, personality, grit, willingness to communicate, learning styles, beliefs, learning strategies, L2 mindfulness, learning motivation, L2 self-efficacy, engagement and emotions, among others.

Examining the mediation of engagement between self-efficacy and language achievement

ABSTRACT Numerous studies have shown that students’ belief in their ability to execute behaviours to successfully perform second/foreign language (L2) tasks (i.e. self-efficacy) is positively related to their L2 achievement. However, self-efficacy alone does not automatically lead to successful L2 achievement but has to be mediated by other psychological traits, such as language engagement, that are more directly related to task performance. Regardless, studies examining the interplay between self-efficacy and student engagement are scarce in L2 learning. To fill this gap, the current study investigated how engagement with L2 learning mediates the relation between self-efficacy and L2 achievement. We recruited 692 first-year undergraduate students studying English as an L2 from a university in mainland China (M age = 18.76, SD = .76, females = 68%). Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in English and engagement with English were measured. Students’ terminal English exam score was used to represent their L2/English achievement. Results of multilevel structural equation modelling showed that (1) self-efficacy was indirectly related to English achievement through engagement and that (2) only cognitive engagement mediated the effect of self-efficacy on L2 achievement. The results suggested the importance of accounting for engagement to understand the relation between self-efficacy and L2 achievement.

Factors Influencing L2 Maintenance in the L1 Environment: A Case Study of an Arab Returnee Child

The purpose of this cross-sectional observational study is to show how the perception of returnees’ L2 can be changed in the digital era and how the massive spread of technology, among other factors, has eased an Arab (Saudi) returnee child’s maintenance of English as an L2. The study discusses how technology allowed the returnee to continue to receive abundant L2 input, use the L2 daily, and interact with native speakers. The child was 9 months old when his family moved to the United States and was 6.2 years old when returned to Saudi Arabia. The study took place 5.4 years after their return when his age was 11.6 years old. A free conversation with the child, observation of online gaming, and an interview with parents were conducted to observe the child’s L2 maintenance. The child demonstrated an intermediate level of fluency and produced non-verbal communication in free conversation and online gaming. The parents held positive attitudes toward bilingualism and English which was believed to have a great influence on the child’s L2 maintenance. The study concludes that technology, parental attitudes, and personality and motivation have all contributed to the child’s successful L2 maintenance.

Spectral and temporal implementation of Japanese speakers’ English vowel categories: A corpus-based study

This study investigates the predictions of second language (L2) acquisition models — SLM, PAM-L2, and L2LP — on how native (L1) Japanese speakers implement the spectral and temporal aspects of L2 American English vowel categories. Data were obtained from 102 L1 Japanese speakers in the J-AESOP corpus, which also includes nativelikeness judgments by trained phoneticians. Spectrally, speakers judged to be less nativelike showed a strong influence of L1-L2 category assimilation, except L2 /æː/ whose dissimilarity from L1 categories likely triggered new category formation, in accordance with SLM and PAM-L2. However, more nativelike speakers showed vowel spectra similar to those of native English speakers for all vowels, which aligns better with L2LP. Temporally, although speakers tended to assimilate the phonetic length of English vowels to Japanese phonemic length distinctions, segment-level L1-L2 category similarity was not a significant predictor of the speakers’ nativelikeness. Instead, implementation of prosodic-level factors such as stress and phrase-final lengthening were better predictors. The results highlight the importance of suprasegmental factors in successful L2 category learning and also reveal a weakness in current models of L2 acquisition, which focus primarily on the segmental level. The use of speech corpora for L2 research is discussed.

Features of Behaviorism in Second Language Acquisition (SLA): An Empirical Excerpt from Applied Linguistics View

Three decades thereabouts when Skinner proposed his behaviorist theory in the context of L1 acquisition exploiting sociolinguistic approach specifically. Subsequently, there have been dearth of studies conducted validating the claims of behaviorism in the field of applied linguistics. Thus, RQ1 highlights the principles of behaviorism towards L2 competence with tantamount research assumption. Taking into account the data presented, it reveals that there practically are features of behaviorism which contributed to the successful L2 acquisition by the L2 learners. This involves reward, habit formation as well stimulus-response linguistic processes leading to the acceptance of the first assumption. Reward fosters positive attitude to further explore the unknown. It leads to an affirmative language attitude necessary to discover the full details of the L2 learning. RQ2 delineates the possible linguistic factors that are contributory to the collective L2 performance during the investigation time frame. Primary linguistic factors could have been the minimal L2 exposure of the students to the target language due to transition phase which forced the students to switch codes occasionally to complete the cycle of communication. This study is valuable to the learners and teachers of ESL/EFL worldwide as it offers some pedagogical implications necessary to understand the learning pace, lexical index, comprehensible input (CI), and language attitude of L2 learners. EFL teachers could likewise provide appropriate teaching materials and communicative activities to bring the students to a high level of competence by degrees.

Teaching classic put to the test: Do tongue twisters work for L2 pronunciation?

AbstractTongue twisters are a controversial pronunciation teaching classic. Whereas some see tongue twisters difficult and frustrating for learners, others find them fun and motivating. This study was inspired by these opposing views and the fact that previous studies have failed to offer convincing proof of whether this technique works for L2 pronunciation learning. This study approaches the question with a teaching experiment. Participants were 28 learners of L2 Swedish. Half of them trained with tongue twisters and half with authentic sentences. Training focussed on two sounds typically difficult for the learners, who were tested before and after the training period. Further, the participants were surveyed to grasp their tongue‐twister experiences. Results reveal that tongue twisters were mostly viewed positively and lead to better pronunciation development than training with authentic sentences. Hence, the study demonstrates that tongue twisters now have research‐based potential as a successful L2 pronunciation teaching technique.

Motivating Second Language Learners with a Possible Selves Intervention Program

ABSTRACT This intervention study helped EFL learners visualize their possible selves as successful L2 speakers. It included three classes as a control group and three EFL classes as an experimental group at a secondary school in Yemen. The three experimental classes received one ideal L2 self-visualization lesson a week for six weeks, whereas the three control classes received their regular classroom activities. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Results of an analysis of covariance indicated that the ideal L2 self, L2 intended learning effort, and L2 learning experience of the experimental group increased significantly, whereas there was no significant increase in those of the control group. Analysis of qualitative data showed that the intervention motivated the students by helping them develop future L2 self-guides, enjoy the L2 learning experience, enhance L2 intended effort, make future plans, goals, and decisions, and recognize the needs to learn English. Pedagogical implications are provided.

Advancing Motivation and Aptitude Research in Relation to Teachers' Practices and Successful L2 Learning Outcomes

The underlying constructs of aptitude and motivation in language learning have been a central topic in SLA research. However, issues investigated in this regard, have not substantially discussed the effect of teachers' practices on learners' motivation and language aptitude. This paper, therefore, argues that novel research is needed to examine the impact of teachers’ classroom practices on stimulating learners to engage effectively in learning and improving their ability to acquire and apply L2 knowledge. Towards this end, a detailed discussion of research findings of some influential SLA work on aptitude and motivation is carried out. The aim is to trace early and recent concepts of research findings on aptitude and motivation and interpret them in the light of their practical and pedagogical relevance to the achievement of L2 learning. Based on the research synthesis, practical implications are devised with the ambition to open a new avenue for future research to examine the effect of teachers' practices on learners' aptitude and motivation and whether such effect correlates positively with foreign/second language learning. The paper ends with classroom recommendations that are meant to keep students motivated and enable them to fully exhibit their language abilities with the hope of maximum attainment in the target language.

The Contribution of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory in Mediating L2 Knowledge Co-Construction

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the role of meaningful human interaction as playing an effective role in language learning, especially in L2 development. The aim of this paper is to synthesize the main concepts of SCT and to show how it may help to enhance L2 learning practices. A critical review of Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory suggests that human mental performance is basically a process arranged by concepts, social objects, and activities. Learning is, then, seen as an interactive process, representing the learner’s final output in practical community. Applying the Socio-Cultural Theory in practice can be the more suitable approach to provide an all-encompassing framework in which L2 learners can be engaged in various collaborative learning activities for L2 language learning. L2 learners' interaction with various language activities seems to have instructional implications on their cognitive progress and consequently, this can reflect positively on their L2 language performance, leading to meaningful and constructivist L2 learning experience. The critical overview of the SCT in this paper recommends encouraging the use of collaborative techniques that integrate both instructors and L2 learners with the socio-cultural norms that can help exploit the full potential for a successful L2 learning experience.

High fluoroquinolone resistance proportions among multidrug-resistant tuberculosis driven by dominant L2 Mycobacterium tuberculosis clones in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region

BackgroundMultidrug-resistant (MDR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) strains are a serious health problem in India, also contributing to one-fourth of the global MDR tuberculosis (TB) burden. About 36% of the MDR MTBC strains are reported fluoroquinolone (FQ) resistant leading to high pre-extensively drug-resistant (pre-XDR) and XDR-TB (further resistance against bedaquiline and/or linezolid) rates. Still, factors driving the MDR/pre-XDR epidemic in India are not well defined.MethodsIn a retrospective study, we analyzed 1852 consecutive MTBC strains obtained from patients from a tertiary care hospital laboratory in Mumbai by whole genome sequencing (WGS). Univariate and multivariate statistics was used to investigate factors associated with pre-XDR. Core genome multi locus sequence typing, time scaled haplotypic density (THD) method and homoplasy analysis were used to analyze epidemiological success, and positive selection in different strain groups, respectively.ResultsIn total, 1016 MTBC strains were MDR, out of which 703 (69.2%) were pre-XDR and 45 (4.4%) were XDR. Cluster rates were high among MDR (57.8%) and pre-XDR/XDR (79%) strains with three dominant L2 (Beijing) strain clusters (Cl 1–3) representing half of the pre-XDR and 40% of the XDR-TB cases. L2 strains were associated with pre-XDR/XDR-TB (P < 0.001) and, particularly Cl 1–3 strains, had high first-line and FQ resistance rates (81.6–90.6%). Epidemic success analysis using THD showed that L2 strains outperformed L1, L3, and L4 strains in short- and long-term time scales. More importantly, L2 MDR and MDR + strains had higher THD success indices than their not-MDR counterparts. Overall, compensatory mutation rates were highest in L2 strains and positive selection was detected in genes of L2 strains associated with drug tolerance (prpB and ppsA) and virulence (Rv2828c). Compensatory mutations in L2 strains were associated with a threefold increase of THD indices, suggesting improved transmissibility.ConclusionsOur data indicate a drastic increase of FQ resistance, as well as emerging bedaquiline resistance which endangers the success of newly endorsed MDR-TB treatment regimens. Rapid changes in treatment and control strategies are required to contain transmission of highly successful pre-XDR L2 strains in the Mumbai Metropolitan region but presumably also India-wide.

Psychometric assessment of individual differences in second language reading anxiety for identifying struggling students in classrooms.

Assessing learners' individual differences helps identify students who need teacher support in classrooms. Previous studies have examined second language (L2) achievement based on reading anxiety because reading is an input-based activity essential for successful L2 learning. This study applied a latent rank model to identify L2 learners who are likely to be struggling or successful in classrooms according to their L2 reading anxiety symptoms. Moreover, a psychometric function was developed to determine the cutoff anxiety scores that discriminate against their substantial differences. The model was applied to responses from the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) provided by 335 Japanese learners of English. The results showed that the FLRAS classified students into three ranked groups with ordinal information regarding L2 reading anxiety. Rank 1 exhibited good conditions in L2 reading anxiety. Rank 2 reported high anxiety toward unfamiliar grammar during L2 reading. Rank 3 had even higher anxiety levels, especially for vocabulary and grammatical knowledge deficits and reading difficulty. The cutoff anxiety scores estimated by the model detected students who failed their L2 class with 79% accuracy. Theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical issues in language anxiety were discussed in terms of diagnosis and different approaches to teaching L2 reading.

L2 listening: An intervention study of instructional approaches

AbstractThis intervention study was conducted to assess the effects of three instructional approaches to L2 listening. That is, a metacognitive pedagogical cycle, an awareness‐raising approach which combined reflections and short discussions of factors associated with successful L2 listening, and an approach that incorporated vocabulary as a prelistening activity and guiding questions during the listening session. This study embraces the need for intervention studies that identify what works best. It addresses methodological flaws in previous studies and concerns associated with long‐term effects. L2 listening was measured before and after the intervention at pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. The overarching research question was concerned with whether or not there are significant differences in L2 listening between and within the groups. The results indicate that guiding learners through a process that develops metacognitive knowledge and regulatory skills is an effective way of teaching listening. The results also offer preliminary evidence of long‐term effects.