Subtilis Trp Research Articles

Identification of a Residue (Glu60) in TRAP Required for Inducing Efficient Transcription Termination at the trp Attenuator Independent of Binding Tryptophan and RNA.

Transcription of the tryptophan (trp) operon in Bacillus subtilis is regulated by an attenuation mechanism. Attenuation is controlled by the trpRNA-binding attenuation protein (TRAP). TRAP binds to a site in the 5' leader region of the nascent trp transcript in response to the presence of excess intracellular tryptophan. This binding induces transcription termination upstream of the structural genes of the operon. In prior attenuation models, the role of TRAP was only to alter the secondary structure of the leader region RNA so as to promote formation of the trp attenuator, which was presumed to function as an intrinsic terminator. However, formation of the attenuator alone has been shown to be insufficient to induce efficient termination, indicating that TRAP plays an additional role in this process. To further examine the function of TRAP, we performed a genetic selection for mutant TRAPs that bind tryptophan and RNA but show diminished termination at the trp attenuator. Five such TRAP mutants were obtained. Four of these have substitutions at Glu60, three of which are Lys (E60K) substitutions and the fourth of which is a Val (E60V) substitution. The fifth mutant obtained contains a substitution at Ile63, which is on the same β-strand of TRAP as Glu60. Purified E60K TRAP binds tryptophan and RNA with properties similar to those of the wild type but is defective at inducing termination at the trp attenuator in vitroIMPORTANCE Prior models for attenuation control of the B. subtilis trp operon suggested that the only role for TRAP is to bind to the leader region RNA and alter its folding to induce formation of an intrinsic terminator. However, several recent studies suggested that TRAP plays an additional role in the termination mechanism. We hypothesized that this function could involve residues in TRAP other than those required to bind tryptophan and RNA. Here we obtained TRAP mutants with alterations at Glu60 that are deficient at inducing termination in the leader region while maintaining tryptophan and RNA binding properties similar to those of the WT protein. These studies provide additional evidence that TRAP-mediated transcription termination at the trp attenuator is neither intrinsic nor Rho dependent.

Dynamic Quaternary Associations in Regulating Expression of the B. Subtilis Trp Operon

A large proportion of regulatory proteins are homo-oligomeric, with multiple copies of the same polypeptide assembled into higher-order quaternary structures. In addition to a capacity for both homotropic and heterotropic allostery, homo-oligomeric structures are capable of polyvalent interactions with multiple binding partners, such that different quaternary structures can have differing or opposing functions. The factors that govern the assembly and dissociation of such regulatory supramolecular assemblies are poorly understood, yet critical to their function. We apply a combination of analytical techniques to study the interaction between TRAP and its inhibitor, Anti-TRAP. TRAP (trp RNA-binding attenuation protein) is a symmetric toroidal undecamer (11-mer) that upon being activated by tryptophan (Trp), down-regulates production of the amino acid by sequence specific binding to a single-stranded RNA that is encoded in the 5’ leader of the operon. The inhibitor Anti-TRAP (AT) adopts either toroidal trimeric, or tetrahedral dodecameric, structures in a manner that depends on concentration and pH, while it is the trimeric form of AT that binds Trp-activated TRAP to prevent RNA binding. Using NMR, sedimentation velocity (AUC), SAXS and native mass spectrometry, we have shown that anti-TRAP condenses multiple TRAP oligomers into hetero-complexes, thereby blocking TRAP's RNA-binding sites. Calorimetry, FRET, AUC and native mass spectrometry experiments provide quantitative insights into the activation, assembly, and dissociation of these regulatory complexes, which we find exhibit phase separation behavior in the absence of RNA. These findings and approach may have broad implications for other oligomeric supramolecular regulatory assemblies.

Riboswitches: still a lot of undiscovered country.

Riboswitches: still a lot of undiscovered country.

Characterization of TRAP-mediated regulation of the B. subtilis trp operon using in vitro transcription and transcriptional reporter fusions in vivo.

In Bacillus subtilis, transcription of the tryptophan biosynthetic operon is regulated by an attenuation mechanism involving two alternative RNA secondary structures in the 5' leader region upstream of the structural genes. Regulation is accomplished, at least in part, by controlling which RNA structure forms during transcription of the operon. When intracellular tryptophan levels are high, the trp RNA-binding attenuation protein (TRAP) binds to the nascent trp mRNA to promote formation of a transcription terminator structure so as to induce transcription termination prior to the structural genes. In limiting tryptophan, TRAP does not bind, the alternative antiterminator RNA structure forms, and the operon is transcribed. Several in vitro and in vivo assays have been utilized to study TRAP-mediated regulation of both transcription and translation. Here, we describe using in vitro transcription attenuation assays and in vivo trp-lacZ fusions to examine TRAP-mediated regulation of the trp genes.

Modulating TRAP-mediated transcription termination by AT during transcription of the leader region of the Bacillus subtilis trp operon

An 11-subunit protein called trp RNA binding Attenuation Protein (TRAP) controls attenuation of the tryptophan biosynthetic (trpEDCFBA) operon in Bacillus subtilis. Tryptophan-activated TRAP binds to 11 (G/U)AG repeats in the 5′ leader region of trp mRNAs, and downregulates expression of the operon by promoting transcription termination prior to the structural genes. Anti-TRAP (AT) is an antagonist that binds to tryptophan-activated TRAP and prevents TRAP from binding to RNA, thereby upregulating expression of the trp genes. AT forms trimers, and multiple trimers bind to a TRAP 11mer. It is not known how many trimers must bind to TRAP in order to interfere with RNA binding. Studies of isolated TRAP and AT showed that AT can prevent TRAP from binding to the trp leader RNA but cannot dissociate a pre-formed TRAP-RNA complex. Here, we show that AT can prevent TRAP-mediated termination of transcription by inducing dissociation of TRAP from the nascent RNA when it has bound to fewer than all 11 (G/U)AG repeats. The 5′-most region of the TRAP binding site in the nascent transcript is most susceptible to dissociation from TRAP. We also show that one AT trimer bound to TRAP 11mer reduces the affinity of TRAP for RNA and eliminates TRAP-mediated transcription termination in vitro.

Mechanism of NusG-stimulated pausing, hairpin-dependent pause site selection and intrinsic termination at overlapping pause and termination sites in the Bacillus subtilis trp leader

The Bacillus subtilis trpEDCFBA operon is regulated by TRAP-dependent transcription attenuation and translation repression mechanisms. Previous results showed that NusA and NusG cooperatively stimulate RNA polymerase pausing at U107 and U144 in the trp leader, and that NusG is required for pausing at U144 in vivo. Pausing at U107 and U144 participate in the attenuation and translation repression mechanisms, respectively, by providing additional time for TRAP binding. The intrinsic trp leader terminator overlaps the hairpin-dependent U144 pause site. Here, we conducted a systematic mutational analysis of the terminator/pause region. Deletion of the hairpin reduced pausing but did not affect pause site selection. Thus, hairpin-stimulated pausing is a more appropriate term than hairpin-dependent pausing for this pause site. In contrast, minor changes to the hairpin abolished termination. Sequences in the U-rich/T-rich tract following the hairpin affected termination and pausing differentially. The distance between the hairpin and the 3' end of the RNA dictates the position of termination, whereas the sequence downstream from the hairpin is responsible for pause site selection. NusA was found to increase both pausing and termination by reducing the rate of transcription. We also found that NusG-stimulated pausing is sequence specific and that NusG does not affect termination.

Bacillus subtilis trp Leader RNA: RNase J1 ENDONUCLEASE CLEAVAGE SPECIFICITY AND PNPase PROCESSING

In the presence of ample tryptophan, transcription from the Bacillus subtilis trp operon promoter terminates to give a 140-nucleotide trp leader RNA. Turnover of trp leader RNA has been shown to depend on RNase J1 cleavage at a single-stranded, AU-rich region just upstream of the 3' transcription terminator. The small size of trp leader RNA and its strong dependence on RNase J1 cleavage for decay make it a suitable substrate for analyzing the requirements for RNase J1 target site specificity. trp leader RNAs with nucleotide changes around the RNase J1 target site were more stable than wild-type trp leader RNA, showing that sequences on either side of the cleavage site contribute to RNase J1 recognition. An analysis of decay intermediates from these mutants suggested limited 3'-to-5' exonuclease processing from the native 3' end. trp leader RNAs were designed that contained wild-type or mutant RNase J1 targets elsewhere on the molecule. The presence of an additional RNase J1 cleavage site resulted in faster RNA decay, depending on its location. Addition of a 5' tail containing 7 A residues caused destabilization of trp leader RNAs. Surprisingly, addition at the 5' end of a strong stem loop structure that is known to stabilize other RNAs did not result in a longer trp leader RNA half-life, suggesting that the RNase J1 cleavage site may be accessed directly. In the course of these experiments, we found evidence that polynucleotide phosphorylase processivity was inhibited by a GCGGCCGC sequence.

Initiation of decay of Bacillus subtilis trp leader RNA

Transcription termination in the leader region of the Bacillus subtilis trp operon is regulated by binding of the 11-mer TRAP complex to nascent trp RNA, which results in formation of a terminator structure. Rapid decay of trp leader RNA, which is required to release the TRAP complex and maintain a sufficient supply of free TRAP, is mediated by polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase). Using purified B. subtilis PNPase, we showed that, when TRAP was present, PNPase binding to the 3' end of trp leader RNA and PNPase digestion of trp leader RNA from the 3' end were inefficient. These results suggested that initiation of trp leader RNA may begin with an endonuclease cleavage upstream of the transcription terminator structure. Such cleavage was observed in vivo. Mutagenesis of nucleotides at the cleavage site abolished processing and resulted in a 4-fold increase in trp leader RNA half-life. This is the first mapping of a decay-initiating endonuclease cleavage site on a native B. subtilis RNA.

The Rate of TRAP Binding to RNA Is Crucial for Transcription Attenuation Control of the B. subtilis trp Operon

The trp RNA-binding attenuation protein (TRAP) regulates expression of the tryptophan biosynthetic and transport genes in Bacillus subtilis in response to changes in the levels of intracellular tryptophan. Transcription of the trpEDCFBA operon is controlled by an attenuation mechanism involving two overlapping RNA secondary structures in the 5′ leader region of the trp transcript; TRAP binding promotes formation of a transcription terminator structure that halts transcription prior to the structural genes. TRAP consists of 11 identical subunits and is activated to bind RNA by binding up to 11 molecules of L-tryptophan. The TRAP binding site in the leader region of the trp operon mRNA consists of 11 (G/U)AG repeats. We examined the importance of the rate of TRAP binding to RNA for the transcription attenuation mechanism. We compared the properties of two types of TRAP 11-mers: homo-11-mers composed of 11 wild-type subunits, and hetero-11-mers with only one wild-type subunit and ten mutant subunits defective in binding either RNA or tryptophan. The hetero-11-mers bound RNA with only slightly diminished equilibrium binding affinity but with slower on-rates as compared to WT TRAP. The hetero-11-mers showed significantly decreased ability to induce transcription termination in the trp leader region when examined using an in vitro attenuation system. Together these results indicate that the rate of TRAP binding to RNA is a crucial factor in TRAP's ability to control attenuation.

Recycling of a regulatory protein by degradation of the RNA to which it binds.

When Bacillus subtilis is grown in the presence of excess tryptophan, transcription of the trp operon is regulated by binding of tryptophan-activated TRAP to trp leader RNA, which promotes transcription termination in the trp leader region. Transcriptome analysis of a B. subtilis strain lacking polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase; a 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease) revealed a striking overexpression of trp operon structural genes when the strain was grown in the presence of abundant tryptophan. Analysis of trp leader RNA in the PNPase(-) strain showed accumulation of a stable, TRAP-protected fragment of trp leader RNA. Loss of trp operon transcriptional regulation in the PNPase(-) strain was due to the inability of ribonucleases other than PNPase to degrade TRAP-bound leader RNA, resulting in the sequestration of limiting TRAP. Thus, in the case of the B. subtilis trp operon, specific ribonuclease degradation of RNA in an RNA-protein complex is required for recycling of an RNA-binding protein. Such a mechanism may be relevant to other systems in which limiting concentrations of an RNA-binding protein must keep pace with ongoing transcription.

Phylogenetic conservation of RNA secondary and tertiary structure in the trpEDCFBA operon leader transcript in Bacillus.

Expression of the trpEDCFBA operon of Bacillus subtilis is regulated by transcription attenuation and translation control mechanisms. We recently determined that the B. subtilis trp leader readthrough transcript can adopt a Mg(2+)-dependent tertiary structure that appears to interfere with TRAP-mediated translation control of trpE. In the present study, sequence comparisons to trp leaders from three other Bacillus sp. were made, suggesting that RNA secondary and tertiary structures are phylogenetically conserved. To test this hypothesis, experiments were carried out with the trp leader transcript from Bacillus stearothermophilus. Structure mapping experiments confirmed the predicted secondary structure. Native gel experiments identified a faster mobility species in the presence of Mg(2+), suggesting that a Mg(2+)-dependent tertiary structure forms. Mg(2+)-dependent protection of residues within the first five triplet repeats of the TRAP binding target and a pyrimidine-rich internal loop were observed, consistent with tertiary structure formation between these regions. Structure mapping in the presence of a competitor DNA oligonucleotide allowed the interacting partners to be identified as a single-stranded portion of the purine-rich TRAP binding target and the large downstream pyrimidine-rich internal loop. Thermal denaturation experiments revealed a Mg(2+)- and pH-dependent unfolding transition that was absent for a transcript missing the first five triplet repeats. The stability of several mutant transcripts allowed a large portion of the base-pairing register for the tertiary interaction to be determined. These data indicate that RNA secondary and tertiary structures involved in TRAP-mediated translation control are conserved in at least four Bacillus species.

A Mg2+-dependent RNA Tertiary Structure Forms in the Bacillus subtilis trp Operon Leader Transcript and Appears to Interfere with trpE Translation Control by Inhibiting TRAP Binding

Expression of the trpEDCFBA operon of Bacillus subtilis is regulated by transcription attenuation and translation control mechanisms. In each case, binding of the trp RNA-binding attenuation protein (TRAP) to the untranslated trp leader transcript mediates conformational changes in the RNA secondary structure. We examined the structure of the trp leader readthrough RNA in the absence of TRAP. Using chemical and enzymatic probes, the secondary structure of the trp leader RNA was found to be similar to predicted models. In addition, this RNA was found to adopt a Mg2+-dependent, long-range tertiary interaction under physiological monovalent salt conditions. Formation of this tertiary structure does not require significant changes in the preformed secondary structure. Enzymatic probing of the RNA in the presence of competitor DNA oligonucleotides that were designed to disrupt the predicted tertiary structure allowed identification of the interacting partners as the single-stranded portion of the purine-rich TRAP binding target and a large downstream pyrimidine-rich internal loop. UV cross-linking experiments utilizing 5′-p-azidophenacyl-containing transcripts revealed a Mg2+-dependent cross-link. Mapping of this cross-link provided evidence that the single-stranded segment of the TRAP binding site is in close proximity to the internal loop. Results from UV melting experiments with wild-type and mutant trp leader transcripts suggested a likely base-pairing register for the tertiary structure. Filter-binding studies demonstrated that the addition of Mg2+ inhibits TRAP binding, which may be partially due to the effect of Mg2+ on RNA tertiary structure formation. Results from expression studies using trpE′-′lacZ translational fusions and RNA-directed cell-free translation experiments suggest that the Mg2+-dependent tertiary structure inhibits TRAP's ability to regulate translation of trpE.

TRAP–RNA Interactions Involved in Regulating Transcription Attenuation of the Bacillus subtilis trp Operon

This chapter describes the methods that have been used to characterize the interaction of trp RNA-binding attenuation protein (TRAP) with RNA, and to study how these interactions are involved in regulating transcription attenuation of the trp operon. TRAP is encoded by mtrB, the second gene of the mtrAB operon. MtrA encodes GTP cyclohydrolase I, an enzyme involved in folic acid biosynthesis. Both Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus stearothermophilus TRAP have been expressed in Escherichia coli (E.Coli) using the T7 expression system. Several assays have been used to examine the interaction of TRAP with RNA. These assays use 32 P-labeled transcripts containing either the trp leader sequence or artificial TRAP binding sites. One of the quickest and most reliable methods to quantitatively analyze TRAP binding to RNA is the nitrocellulose filter binding assay. Equilibrium dialysis was first used to demonstrate that tryptophan binds to TRAP using an assay. This simple method involves placing TRAP on one side of a dialysis membrane and [ 14 C] L-tryptophan on the other side and then allowing dialysis to proceed until equilibrium is reached. Both transcriptional and translational gene fusions containing the trp promoter and leader region fused to lacZ have been used extensively to examine TRAP function in vivo.

Molecular biology. Turning gene regulation on its head.

Regulation of the trp operon in E. coli (which contains genes encoding enzymes that make the amino acid tryptophan) has been well worked out. The expression of the trp operon in other bacteria, such as B. subtilis, is less well understood. In a Perspective, Losick and Sonenshein describe new work (Valbuzzi and Yanofsky) that reveals the workings of the B. subtilis trp operon and the unique way in which this organism fine-tunes gene expression.

Trp RNA-binding attenuation protein (TRAP)-trp leader RNA interactions mediate translational as well as transcriptional regulation of the Bacillus subtilis trp operon.

Expression of the Bacillus subtilis trpEDCFBA operon has been shown to be regulated by transcription attenuation in response to the availability of L-tryptophan. Regulation is mediated by the tryptophan-activated trp RNA-binding attenuation protein, TRAP, the product of mtrB. Formation of mutually exclusive RNA anti-terminator and terminator structures within trp leader RNA determines whether transcription will terminate in the leader region of the operon. Previous studies suggested that transcripts that escape termination are subject to translational regulation via the formation of a secondary structure that blocks ribosome access to the trpE ribosome-binding site. To assess the relative importance of these postulated events in trp operon regulation, we used site-directed mutagenesis to alter the putative elements involved in transcriptional and translational control. Using a trpE'-'lacZ reporter, we measured translational yield and specific mRNA levels with various leader constructs, in both mtrB+ and mtrB strains, during growth in the presence and absence of excess tryptophan. To verify that the altered regulatory regions behaved as expected, we carried out in vitro transcription assays with the wild-type and altered leader region templates and performed oligonucleotide competition assays with an oligonucleotide complementary to a segment of the transcription terminator. Our results establish that binding of TRAP to leader RNA regulates of transcription termination in the trp operon over about an 88-fold range and regulates translation of trpE over about a 13-fold range. The roles played by different trp leader RNA segments in mediating transcriptional and translational regulation are documented by our findings.

Regulation of the Bacillus subtilis trp operon by an RNA‐binding protein

The Bacillus subtilis tryptophan (trpEDCFBA) operon is regulated by transcription attenuation. Transcription is controlled by two alternative RNA secondary structures, which form in the leader transcript. In the presence of L-tryptophan, a transcription terminator forms and the operon is not expressed, whereas in the absence of tryptophan, an antiterminator structure forms allowing transcription of the operon. The mechanism of selection between these alternative structures involves a trans-acting RNA-binding regulatory protein. This protein is the product of the mtrB gene and is called TRAP for trp attenuation protein. TRAP has been shown to bind specifically to trp leader RNA, and to cause transcription of the trp operon to terminate in the leader region. The model for regulation suggests that in the presence of tryptophan, TRAP binds to the leader RNA and induces formation of the transcription terminator structure, whereas in the absence of tryptophan, the protein does not bind and the antiterminator is formed.

MtrB from Bacillus subtilis binds specifically to trp leader RNA in a tryptophan-dependent manner.

MtrB regulates transcription attenuation of the Bacillus subtilis trp operon. We have shown that MtrB, either from B. subtilis or overexpressed in Escherichia coli, binds specifically to RNA from the leader region of the trp operon by a gel mobility-shift assay. This binding is tryptophan dependent. MtrB binds to a transcript terminated at the trp attenuator (-2 to +138) or a read-through transcript (-2 to +318). MtrB does not bind antisense trp leader RNA or single-stranded trp leader DNA. These results support the model in which attenuation is controlled by tryptophan-activated MtrB influencing the secondary structure of the leader region transcript to form a terminator structure.

The mtr locus is a two-gene operon required for transcription attenuation in the trp operon of Bacillus subtilis.

We have cloned and characterized the mtr operon of Bacillus subtilis. This operon encodes a presumed RNA-binding regulatory protein that is required for attenuation control of the trp operon. We have shown that the mtr operon consists of two structural genes, mtrA and mtrB, predicted to encode 22-kDa and 8-kDa polypeptides, respectively. MtrB shows homology with RegA, an RNA-binding regulatory protein of bacteriophage T4. The lesions in several mtr mutants were localized to mtrB or the putative mtr promoter. Several mtrB alleles were dominant to mtr+, suggesting that the regulatory factor is a multimeric protein. The in vivo action of the mtrA and mtrB gene products was analyzed in an E. coli strain containing a trpE-lacZ gene fusion under control of the B. subtilis trp promoter/attenuator region. Both MtrA and MtrB were necessary for regulation of beta-galactosidase production.

Cis-acting sites in the transcript of the Bacillus subtilis trp operon regulate expression of the operon.

Transcription of the trp operon of Bacillus subtilis is regulated by attenuation. A trpE'-'lacZ gene fusion preceded by the wild-type trp promoter-leader region was used to analyze regulation. Overproduction of the trp leader transcript in trans from a multicopy plasmid caused constitutive expression of the chromosomal trpE'-'lacZ fusion, presumably by titrating a negative regulatory factor encoded by the mtr locus. Subsegments of the trp leader region cloned onto the multicopy plasmid were examined for their abilities to elevate beta-galactosidase activity. An RNA segment spanning the portion of the leader transcript that forms the promoter-proximal strand of the proposed antiterminator structure was most active in this trans test. The data suggest that the mtr gene product, when activated by tryptophan, binds to this RNA segment and prevents formation of the antiterminator. In this manner, the trans-acting factor promotes formation of the RNA structure that causes transcription termination. Secondary-structure predictions for the leader segment of the trp operon transcript suggest that if the mtr factor bound this RNA segment in a nonterminated transcript, the ribosome-binding site for the first structural gene, trpE, could be sequestered in a stable RNA structure. We tested this possibility by comparing transcriptional and translational fusions containing the initial segments of the trp operon. Our findings suggest that the mtr product causes both transcription attenuation and inhibition of translation of trpE mRNA. Inhibition of translation initiation would reduce ribosome density on trpE mRNA, perhaps making it more labile. Consistent with this interpretation, the addition of tryptophan to mtr+ cultures increased the rate of trpE'-'lacZ mRNA decay.