Subterranean Nests Research Articles

Growth response of Metarhizium anisopliae to two Formosan subterranean termite nest volatiles, naphthalene and fenchone

The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin was investigated as a control agent against the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. Metarhizium anisopliae is a known insect pathogen and its effectiveness against termite species has been demonstrated. Use of this fungus in an integrated pest management scheme may be effective. In order to function in this manner, M. anisopliae must withstand the environment of a Formosan subterranean termite nest, including the presence of the volatile chemicals naphthalene and fenchone. These chemicals have been identified from Formosan termite nests, but their significance, if any, in a termite society is unknown. In this study M. anisopliae strain ESC1 was exposed to several concentrations of naphthalene, (+)fenchone and (-)fenchone to determine when significant inhibition of growth occurs. Fungi were exposed to the specified amount of volatile chemical in individual Petri dishes, and incubated in sealed environmental chambers. Metarhizium anisopliae grown in Petri dishes containing 0.1 mg, 1 mg and 10 mg of naphthalene exhibited 0%, 30% and 80% inhibition of radial growth, respectively, when compared to an unexposed control. Exposure to 1 μL, 10 μL and 100 μL of (-)fenchone resulted in 6%, 28% and 100% inhibition, respectively. Exposure to 1 μL, 10 μL and 100 μL of (+)fenchone resulted in 17%, 22% and 100% inhibition, respectively. Once inhibition rates were established for the individual chemicals, M. anisopliae was exposed to combinations of naphthalene and fenchone. These combinations did not result in significantly more inhibition than the individual volatiles.

Tolerance for Freezing in Hatchling Turtles

Tolerance for Freezing in Hatchling Turtles

Mortality and Emergence Pattern of Overwintering Cocoons of the Wasp ParasitoidSphecophaga vesparum vesparum(Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) in New Zealand

Sphecophaga vesparum vesparum (Curtis) has been released in New Zealand as a biological control agent for the introduced yellowjackets Vespula vulgaris (L.) and V. germanica (F.). The parasitoid has an overwintering cocoon stage that can remain in the subterranean nest cavity for 1–4 yr before emerging. A mathematical model of the potential effect of the parasitoid has suggested that the probability of survival of overwintering cocoons and the pattern of cocoon emergence are 2 key variables for predicting the ultimate suppression in yellowjacket abundance. Overwintering cocoons were buried in subterranean cavities to simulate natural conditions and rates of cocoon predation by rodents, plus mortality from other causes, and emergence patterns were recorded. Rodents killed 62% of cocoons over 3 yr, and flooding, insects, and unknown causes of mortality accounted for another 19.2%. The mean annual survival rate for overwintering cocoons was 0.56, considerably higher than the model predicted. Emergence of adults was delayed in comparison with above-ground parasitoid release boxes, with the majority of subterranean cocoons remaining dormant until their 3rd spring. Using the higher survival rate and delayed emergence pattern in the model for the effect of the parasitoid suggests that the maximum likely reduction of yellowjacket density may be greater than originally predicted but will take longer to achieve. However, data on the proportion of spring nests killed by the parasitoid is needed before the model can usefully predict the ultimate level of suppression of yellowjacket density.

Sociometry and Sociogenesis of Colony-Level Attributes of the Florida Harvester Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

This study addressed how collective, supra-organismal colony characteristics change during growth (sociogenesis) from the founding queen to maturity and through the seasons. A total of 31 harvester ant colonies representing a full range of sizes was excavated on 4 sample dates during the year. The data were analyzed for growth-related and seasonal patterns. The subterranean nests consisted of horizontal chambers connected by vertical tunnels. The total area of these nests increased more slowly than did the colony population, leading to an increase in mean worker density, which also varied seasonally. Nest area grew somewhat more rapidly through nest deepening and addition of new chambers than it did through the enlargement of chambers. The mean weight and headwidth of workers increased with colony size, but this size increase was limited to the minor workers. The major workers marle up 7% of the worker population, a proportion that did not vary with colony size. The total weight and number of seeds stored by colonies increased isometrically with colony size, so that the milligram of seeds per milligram of ant biomass did not change. However, the weight of seeds increased more rapidly than did the population of dark (older) workers who collected them, so that the foragers of larger colonies each collected more seeds than their counterparts in smaller colonies. Large colonies contained up to 300,000 seeds. Colonies of fewer than 60 workers collected smaller seeds, but larger colonies showed no relationship between mean worker size and seed size. Brood production was limited to May-September, Sexuals were produced only in the early spring, before any workers, by colonies with >2,500 workers ( 1/3 of maximal colony size). In the summer, colonies of all sizes produced only workers. The seasonal patterns of colony fat reserves suggest that colonies draw on these reserves to overwinter and produce sexuals, then they rebuild the reserves during the summer. The size of the fat reserves increased much more rapidly than did colony size, suggesting that changes in colony composition and function lead to better nutrition. All indicators of colony growth rate increased more slowly than did colony size. These included the ratio of broond to workers, callow workers to dark workers, and the number of developing follicles in the queen's ovaries. These decreases were also reflected in raw birth rates (individuals per day) that increased half as rapidly as did colony size, and colony growth rates (percent per day) that decreased by half with each 10-fold increase in colony size. These patterns are discussed in relation to colony function, ontogeny and life history.

Hatchling painted turtles ( Chrysemys picta) survive only brief freezing of their bodily fluids

Neonatal painted turtles ( Chrysemys picta) spend their first winter inside the shallow, subterranean nest cavity where they completed embryogenesis. Consequently, hatchlings at high latitudes may be exposed to ice and cold during the winter. This study was undertaken to determine how long hatchlings withstand freezing at temperatures slightly below 0°C because tolerance for freezing has been proposed to be the key to survival by overwintering animals. A thermocouple was glued to the carapace of each hatchling. The animal was dipped in water to provide a site of nucleation of ice and was then placed into a glass jar that was partially immersed in a circulating bath at −2°C. Carapace temperature was monitored throughout the procedure. When a freezing exotherm was detected, timing of the freezing event began. Animals were maintained in a frozen state for 12–48 h prior to being warmed to room temperature. Of the 39 hatchlings, 22 did not survive, and mortality increased as the duration of freezing increased. Logistic regression indicates that no turtle would have survived in a frozen state for more than 54 h. These results indicate that hatchlings can survive only brief exposure to freezing of the body fluids. Thus, hatchlings cannot tolerate freezing during prolonged periods of cold.

Studies on the Nesting Behaviour and Control of the Graminivorous ant Messor galla Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Ilorin area of Nigeria

Messor galla invaded parks and grounds at the University of Ilorin in 1994. This graminivorous ant constructs subterranean nests commonly on dark brown loamy sand soils on the lawns and elsewhere. Foraging for food and other materials are common in the dry season while nest clearing and minor duties are performed during rainy season. It is a diurnal insect with peak activities at noon when temperature is about 31.5 C, Trail lengths vary between 97 and 144 111 and the average nest crater measured 47.5 cm radius. Foraging activities also led to massive removal of planted grass wherever the nest occurs leading to economic loss apart from declining aesthetic values. Although, applications of Dieldrex 20 and Aldrex 40 gave little measure of control, Gammalin 20 proved best in the control of the ants.

Perception of carbon dioxide and other ?air-condition? parameters in the leaf cutting antAtta cephalotes

Social insects often build subterranean nests to protect themselves and their brood from predators and environmental influences. These nests can reach remarkable sizes, covering an area of up to 40 m and reaching 6 m below the surface [1]. The fungus gardening leaf cutting ants (genus Atta) have special demands for their nests, including stable microclimatic conditions required by the fungus. The climatic parameters, such as humidity, temperature, and the concentration of CO2 , have direct impact on the development of the brood and on the fitness of the whole colony [2]. The ants appear to be able to regulate these conditions by constructing and, when needed, altering ventilation channels, which are an important part of the nest [3]. Various types of sensilla, often hairshaped sensory organs with up to 30 receptor neurons densely cover the antennae and perceive chemical and mechanical stimuli. In A. cephalotes there are about 1400 sensilla on each antenna, and thus an enormous number of sensory cells relay the information to the brain [4]. In addition to pheromones, food odors, and mechanical stimuli, changes in environmental parameters are detected by antennal sensilla.

Pollination, Foraging, and Nesting Ecology of the Leaf-Cutting Bee Megachile (Delomegachile) addenda (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) on Cranberry Beds

The leaf-cutting bee Megachile addenda Cresson is an effective and potentially manageable pollinator of cultivated cranberries, Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton. This facultatively gregarious, univoltine bee excavates shallow subterranean nests in the dikes and periodically flooded sand beds of commercial cranberries in southern New Jersey. Females provision 1-2 leaf-lined nest cells per day, each containing 3.9-5.4 million pollen tetrads (1992 and 1993 means, respectively) collected from a calculated minimum of 1,076 1,207 cranberry flowers. Using their middle and hind legs, pollen-foraging females repeatedly stroked the 8 poricidal anthers of a virgin cranberry flower, removing 71% of the pollen while leaving an average stigmatic load of 28 tetrads (0.6% of pollen harvested). An estimated 1,291-1,440 berries should result from the daily foraging activity of a female, calculated using either pollen or time as currencies. In weather favorable for bee activity, an estimated 1,114 nesting females per hectare of cranberry bed could suffice to produce a commercial fruit set. Management of M. addenda for cranberry pollination must include control of its cleptoparasite Coelioxys immaculata Cockerell, which can parasitize >90% of nest cells when abundant.

Tool-Set for Termite-Fishing By Chimpanzees in the Ndoki Forest, Congo

Abstract Observations strongly indicate chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) of the Ndoki forest use two types of tools, 'perforating sticks' and 'fishing probes' in combination for termite (Macrotermes muelleri) fishing. Perforating sticks were always made of small, stout branches or young saplings of Thomandersia laurifolia (Acanthaceae), about 10 mm in diameter, with lengths of about 50 cm. Fishing probes were made from the flexible stems of Marantaceae species, and were about five mm in diameter, with lengths of about 50 cm. Approximately 15 cm of one end of the tool was usually shaped into a brush. It is likely that chimpanzees make small holes in the termite mound wall to attain access into the termite nest inside, then they insert the probe into the holes and eat the major and minor soldier termites which bite the brush-like end. Of 214 chimpanzee feces collected, 50% contained termite remains of this species, and this fecal analysis shows that termite-eating behavior occurred all the year around, and did not correspond to the seasonality of rainfall or termite activity on the ground. Chimpanzees in the Ndoki forest seem to be able to obtain termitcs from the deep subterranean nest throughout the year by using their tool-set. Such a tool-set might be responsible for the higher frequency of termite-eating in Ndoki chimpanzees than those of chimpanzees in other sites who fish for termites using only probes. This newly described behavior shows that chimpanzees habitually manipulate a tool on an object which they previously modified with another type of tool.

Hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) survive exposure to subzero temperatures during hibernation by avoiding freezing

Hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) were placed individually into artificial nests constructed in jars of damp soil and then were cooled slowly to temperatures between-7.7 and-12.7 °C. Distinct exotherms were recorded in all jars when water in the soil began to freeze at temperatures between-0.9 and-2.4 °C. A second (animal) exotherm was subsequently detected in some of the jars when water in hatchlings also began to freeze. An animal exotherm occurred in the temperature records for all 23 hatchlings that died in tests terminating at temperatures between-7.7 and-10.8 °C, but no such exotherm was apparent in the temperature records for the 23 turtles that survived these treatments. Moreover, the 4 hatchlings that produced exotherms in tests terminating between-11.5 and-12.7 °C failed to survive, but 5 of 7 hatchlings that produced no exotherm in these tests also died. Thus, turtles that die at subzero temperatures above-11 °C apparently succumb to freezing when ice propagates across their integument from the frozen soil, but animals that die at temperatures below-11 °C generally perish from some other cause. These findings indicate that hatchling painted turtles overwintering inside their shallow, subterranean nests survive exposure to subzero temperatures by avoiding freezing instead of by tolerating freezing.

The morphology and behavior of dimorphic males in Perdita portalis (Hymenoptera : Andrenidae)

In Perdita portalis, a ground nesting, communal bee, males are clearly dimorphic. The two male morphs are easily distinguished based on head size and shape into (1) a flight-capable, small-headed (SH) morph that resembles the males of other closely related species and (2) a flightless, large-headed (LH) morph that possesses numerous derived traits, such as reduced compound eyes, enlarged facial foveae and fully atrophied indirect flight muscles. The SH morph occurs exclusively on flowers while the LH morph is found only in nests with females. While on flowers, SH males are aggressive, fighting with conspecific males and heterospecific male and female bees, and they mate frequently with foraging females. Using artificial observation nests placed in the field, I observed the behavior of females and LH males within their subterranean nests. LH males are aggressive fighters; males attacked each other with mandibles agape, and male-male fights always ended in the death of one male. LH males are highly attentive to the reproductive behavior of females; they spend increasing amounts of time near open cells during cell provisioning, and mating only takes place immediately prior to oviposition when females are forming the accumulated pollen and nectar into a ball. Based on larvae reared to adulthood in the laboratory, the two male morphs occur in equal proportions. The behavior of males in closely related species, especially P. texana, and the origin and maintenance of male dimorphism are discussed.

Microclimatic Conditions in Nests of the Cuban Iguana (Cyclura nubila)

Although there is a growing body of literature concerning the physiology of lizard eggs, this information is largely derived from laboratory experiments, and there have been few measurements of the environmental conditions in natural lizard nests. Unlike the nests of most lizards, the nests of some tropical iguanas are obvious and can be observed and experimentally manipulated. Nests of the Cuban iguana Cyclura nubila were instrumented, and weekly measurements of soil temperature, soil water potential, and the concentrations of 02 and CO2 were recorded. Nest temperatures were similar among nests and over a 24 hr cyde with temperatures around 3 1?-32?C. However, there was more variability in soil water potential among the nests, as they dried at different rates after a soaking rain near the beginning of incubation. Although the gaseous environments of the nests were distinctly different from aboveground ambient conditions, the levels of 02 and CO2 were less extreme than in the nests of larger reptiles (sea turtles and crocodiles). The CO2 concentrations were found to be related to nest depth and, to a lesser extent, clutch size. LABORATORY STUDIES OF REPTILIAN EGGS have demonstrated the importance of water exchange between eggs and substrate (Andrews & Sexton 1981, Packard et al. 1977, Packard & Boardman 1982, Snell & Tracy 1985, Tracy 1980, Tracy et al. 1978, Tracy & Snell 1985) and incubation temperature (Joanen & Ferguson 1987, Licht & Moberly 1965, Muth 1980, Packard et al. 1977, Sexton & Marion 1974, Webb et al. 1987). In the laboratory temperature appears to affect survival and growth of embryonic lizards, and water uptake by lizard eggs from the soil appears to be required by embryos in order to survive (Muth 1980, Packard & Boardman 1982, Tracy 1980). Although the natural nests of some reptiles such as turtles (Ackerman 1977, 1980; Packard et al. 1985; Prange & Ackerman 1974; Ratterman & Ackerman 1989) and crocodiles (Lutz & DunbarCooper 1984, Whitehead 1987) have been examined, natural nests of most lizards (see Bustard 1969 for data for aboveground lizard nests) are generally difficult to find (Mautz 1982). However, the nesting sites of several species of tropical iguanas are well known due to their conspicuous nesting behavior (Carpenter 1966; Christian & Tracy 1982; Rand 1968; Snell & Tracy 1985; Werner 1982; Wiewandt 1977, 1982). Rand (1972) examined the temp ratures in nests of Iguana iguana, and Snell and Tracy (1985) measured soil moisture in the nests of Conolophus subcristatus, but otherwise the microenvironments of subterranean lizard nests are unknown. One of the unanswered questions concerning the physiology of lizard eggs is one of the most basic: What are the environmental conditions inside natural nests? The purpose of this study was to measure the microenvironments in nests of the Cuban iguana, Cyclura nubila. The measurements included temperature, water potential, and the concentrations of CO2 and 02 in the nest chamber. Soil moisture has been shown to be important to the hatching success of eggs and the size of hatchlings from natural nests (Snell & Tracy 1985) and important to the amount and form of energy reserves at hatching (Christian et al., 1991, Snell & Tracy 1985). Gas tensions have been shown to be important factors in the hatching success of sea turtle eggs (Ackerman 1977, 1980, 1981a, b), and they have been implicated as factors influencing metabolic rates of embryonic crocodiles (Lutz & Dunbar-Cooper 1984) and dutch size in other large reptiles (Seymour & Ackerman 1980).

Phenology and population structure of annual nests of the German waspVespula germanica(Fab.) in Manawatu, New Zealand, with particular reference to late summer and autumn

AbstractAnnual nests of the German wasp Vespula germanica were collected in Manawatu between January and May, 1969–1988, and analysed as a single cohort Most nests were from urban locations, and subterranean nests were selected preferentially. The study is a baseline measure of a German wasp population in the absence of common wasps. Given the rapid spread of common wasps this circumstance may never be repeated on mainland New Zealand.Manawatu colonies reach peak numbers between mid and late April. Drones are most numerous in mid April and queens in late April to early May. Nests taken in the same locality on the same day vary demographically; large nests generally hold higher proportions of reproductives than small nests.Manawatu nests are generally larger and have more combs than those in England. The area and number of combs increases steadily from January to May. Complementary seasonal changes in the total area of pupal cells, and of empty cells plus cells with eggs, support the view that colonies ach...

Comb cells and puparial silk in the oriental hornet nest: Structure and function.

Comb cells and puparial silk in the oriental hornet nest: Structure and function.

Nest location by spool‐and‐line tracking of dasyurid marsupials in New Guinea

Spool‐and‐line tracking was used to study the nesting habits of three species of dasyurid marsupial, tentatively identified as Murexia longicaudata, Antechinus naso and A. habbema. Five nests were located; those of M. longicaudata (two individuals) were arboreal and those of A. naso (one individual) and A. habbema (two individuals) subterranean. The roughly spherical nests, approximately 20 cm in diameter, were formed of interwoven plant material (broad leaves, bamboo leaves and ferns). Arboreal nests had a single entrance hole on one side. Subterranean nests were situated from 65 to 100 cm below the ground surface and they were reached through tunnels approximately 4 cm in diameter. Only A. habbema was found nesting communally. All nests contained a variety of invertebrates. The leaf composition and invertebrate fauna of the nests are tabulated.

Nest architecture and distribution of the primitive stingless bee,Mourella caerulea(hymenoptera, apidae, meliponinae): Evidence for the origin ofplebeia(s. lat.) on the gondwana continent∗

The stingless bee Mourella caerulea is distributed in the subtropical parts of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguai. In the Serra do Sudeste of Rio Grande do Sul, on the southern part of the Brazilian shield, this species is one of the most abundant meliponine bees. Nests of M. caerulea are built in the soil and exhibit architectural characters typical to all other genera of obligatory ground nesting species, like Schwarziana, and the African genera Meliple‐beia, Plebeiella and Plebeina. The possibility that the similar solutions for the construction of subterranean nests in these genera did not evolve by convergence or parallelism is discussed. The occurence of Mourella together with other more primitive representatives of the Plebeia group on the southern parts of the Brazilian Shield cannot be explained by biogeographic models proposed by some authors. Adopting an alternative model we suggest that, during the lower Cretaceous, ancestor populations of the Pleibeia‐ line inhabiting the meridional shields of We...

Nest relocations in the Japanese queenless antPristomyrmex pungens Mayr. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Nest relocation behavior in the Japanese queenless ant,Pristomyrmex pungens (Myrmicinae), was investigated in two study fields (site A and site Y) in Nagoya City. This species did not construct elaborate subterranean nests but frequently relocated its nests instead. Mean nest longevities were 17.4 days in site A and 15.7 days in site Y, shorter than those of other ants living in similar climatic regions. There was no apparent seasonal change in the frequency of nest relocation throughout the ant's active season, but nest site preference changed seasonally. Nest relocations did not follow a cyclical pattern. Despite the frequent nest relocations, nests were always distributed uniformly. Mean nest relocation distances were 6.8 m in site A and 3.9 m in site Y. Two consecutive nest relocations tended to be in opposite directions. The direction of nest movement was not affected by the distance to a neighbouring nest. Nest movements were usually confined within a small area. Time spent by a colony to relocate its nest was estimated as 20 hr. The proportion of polydomous colonies was 13.7e% in site A and 2.3% in site Y (facultative polydomy). Number of nests per colony tended to increase in summer. Artificial removal of weeds on which workers were collecting aphids' elicited nest relocation. Adaptive and ecological significances of the nest relocation of this ant were discussed.

Evidence of tool-use by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) for digging out a bee-nest in the Kahuzi-biega national park, Zaïre

Two sticks were found near a broken bee-nest ofMeliplebeia tanganyikae aff.nigritaAlfken in the Mt. Kahuzi region of Zaire, and were thought to have been used by a chimpanzee or perhaps several chimpanzees to dig out the subterranean nest. Honey, larvae, and most of the nest had been eaten by them. We did not find any evidence to indicate tool-use by chimpanzees in the Masisi or Itebero-Utu regions, although stingless bees were observed and honey was eaten by chimpanzees in both regions. The sticks resembled in length and diameter those known to be employed for digging termite-mounds in south-west Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. The tool-behavior of the chimpanzees observed at Mt. Kahuzi may be similar to that of those in central Africa, rather than of those in east Africa where digging-tools have yet to be found. Another possibility is that the chimpanzees have developed the digging-tools independently, based on the need to take animal protein in the Mt. Kahuzi region, where termite-mounds are rarely observed. Instead of seeking termites, they may have a stronger motivation to seek bee larvae, especially the larvae of stingless bees beneath the ground, than to the chimpanzees inhabiting lower or drier forests.

Vibration and sound communication in solitary bees and wasps

ABSTRACT. Females of solitary bees (Colletes cunicularius L.) and of digger wasps (Bembix rostrata L.) produce buzzing sounds and are known to secrete volatile odours when digging their way from the subterranean nests to the soil surface. The odours allow patrolling males to determine the approximate position of the digging virgin female. The buzzes are measured as substrate‐borne sound (soil buzz vibrations) and as air‐borne sound (soil buzz sounds). Play‐back experiments suggest that the soil buzzes are used by the males as additional cues for localization. Faint buzz sounds are emitted regularly by the male during genital contact in copulation. They may serve to change the receptivity of the female. Intense and broadband buzz sounds are produced by bees of either sex, if restrained from moving, perhaps serving to deter predators.

Life History of the Northern Mole Cricket, Neocurtilla hexadactyla (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae), Utilizing Carolina-bay Habitats

Life history of the northern mole cricket, Neocurtilla hexadactyla (Perty), was elucidated from a sample of 432 individuals collected from Carolina-bay habitats. Terrestrial drift fences with pitfall traps were an effective sampling technique. Juveniles emerged from subterranean nests in June and July and overwintered in an immature stage. They matured the following summer and presumably mated in the autumn at 16–18 months of age. Females were larger in body size than males but relative forewing length was the same. Females underwent vitellogenesis in spring and oviposition presumably occurred in May and June. Eggs deposited in laboratory containers were found in a single underground chamber and were attended by the female. Sex ratio of the sample was skewed 3:1 in favor of females. Adults and juveniles were found during all months of the year. The life cycle of N. hexadactyla was semivoltine in South Carolina.