Word Substitution Research Articles

Word Level Robustness Enhancement: Fight Perturbation with Perturbation

State-of-the-art deep NLP models have achieved impressive improvements on many tasks. However, they are found to be vulnerable to some perturbations. Before they are widely adopted, the fundamental issues of robustness need to be addressed. In this paper, we design a robustness enhancement method to defend against word substitution perturbation, whose basic idea is to fight perturbation with perturbation. We find that: although many well-trained deep models are not robust in the setting of the presence of adversarial samples, they satisfy weak robustness. That means they can handle most non-crafted perturbations well. Taking advantage of the weak robustness property of deep models, we utilize non-crafted perturbations to resist the adversarial perturbations crafted by attackers. Our method contains two main stages. The first stage is using randomized perturbation to conform the input to the data distribution. The second stage is using randomized perturbation to eliminate the instability of prediction results and enhance the robustness guarantee. Experimental results show that our method can significantly improve the ability of deep models to resist the state-of-the-art adversarial attacks while maintaining the prediction performance on the original clean data.

Methods and ways of translating the realities of the kazakh national culture into chinese on the material of the novel “Abay’s Way” by Mukhtar Auezov

The novel «Abay’s way» has deep cultural significance and research value, as it is one of the worksthat comprehensively reflects the traditional culture of the Kazakh people through records of the life ofthe Abai family. The purpose of this article is to review the methods and ways of translating the realitiesof Kazakh national culture into Chinese based on the materials of the novel «Abay’s way» by MukhtarAuezov. The analysis of the main methods of translating the realities of Kazakh culture into Chinese is ofpractical importance for further study in the framework of translation theory, as well as sciences such asphilology, cultural studies, and literary studies. To study this topic, methods of systematic and comparative analysis, as well as the method of gen-eralization and abstraction were used. As a result of the analysis, it was revealed that when translating these realities into Chinese, the translator used such translation methods as descriptive translation, trans-literation, word substitution, and the method of word omission. The research materials can be used as additional literature on disciplines related to the teaching oftranslation studies, languages, and literature.Key words: descriptive translation, transliteration, native language, Kazakh culture, Kazakh soul.

Critical values for the -transformation with a hole at

AbstractGiven $\beta \in (1,2]$ , let $T_{\beta }$ be the $\beta $ -transformation on the unit circle $[0,1)$ such that $T_{\beta }(x)=\beta x\pmod 1$ . For each $t\in [0,1)$ , let $K_{\beta }(t)$ be the survivor set consisting of all $x\in [0,1)$ whose orbit $\{T^{n}_{\beta }(x): n\ge 0\}$ never hits the open interval $(0,t)$ . Kalle et al [Ergod. Th. & Dynam. Sys.40(9) (2020) 2482–2514] proved that the Hausdorff dimension function $t\mapsto \dim _{H} K_{\beta }(t)$ is a non-increasing Devil’s staircase. So there exists a critical value $\tau (\beta )$ such that $\dim _{H} K_{\beta }(t)>0$ if and only if $t<\tau (\beta )$ . In this paper, we determine the critical value $\tau (\beta )$ for all $\beta \in (1,2]$ , answering a question of Kalle et al (2020). For example, we find that for the Komornik–Loreti constant $\beta \approx 1.78723$ , we have $\tau (\beta )=(2-\beta )/(\beta -1)$ . Furthermore, we show that (i) the function $\tau : \beta \mapsto \tau (\beta )$ is left continuous on $(1,2]$ with right-hand limits everywhere, but has countably infinitely many discontinuities; (ii) $\tau $ has no downward jumps, with $\tau (1+)=0$ and $\tau (2)=1/2$ ; and (iii) there exists an open set $O\subset (1,2]$ , whose complement $(1,2]\setminus O$ has zero Hausdorff dimension, such that $\tau $ is real-analytic, convex, and strictly decreasing on each connected component of O. Consequently, the dimension $\dim _{H} K_{\beta }(t)$ is not jointly continuous in $\beta $ and t. Our strategy to find the critical value $\tau (\beta )$ depends on certain substitutions of Farey words and a renormalization scheme from dynamical systems.

Translation Strategy and Accuracy in Balinese Terms

This research attempts to find out the strategy used by the translator in translating Balinese terms also to explain the accuracy of the translated terms. The data used in this research were in the form of phrases in the book entitled Tigang Satua Bali by Sutjaja (2007). The data collection was done through reading and note taking techniques. The data then were analyzed using theory of translation strategy and accuracy. The result showed that the strategy used within the translation of Balinese terms into target languages (Indonesian and English) are translation by paraphrase, related word, loan phrase, and cultural substitution. Then the accuracy levels of the translation strategy are in three criteria, namely correct, misguided, and unclear.
 

PROBLEMS OF PROSODY AND SOUNDING DISCOURSE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Trying to combine speech recognition and natural language understanding to create a system capable of understanding conversational dialogues, we face a number of problems that are not encountered in text processing. Oral speech, as a rule, is more concise, less grammatically correct, less structured and more ambiguous than text, it is characterized by the absence of smooth fluency, processes of assimilation and reduction, divergence of syntactic and prosodic articulation of the speech sequence, temporal characteristics such as the length of pauses, the presence of hesitation pauses. , duration of speech segments, melodic characteristics. The interest of phoneticians is directed to the search for the causes of phonetic variability, to the study of the typology of the variability of sound phenomena of a general linguistic nature or specific, inherent in specific language groups.In addition, speech recognition systems that attempt to extract words from utterances typically result in word insertion, deletion, or substitution errors due to incorrect speech segmentation and perception. Prosodic means of intonation can be helpful in understanding the structure of a dialogue, as can parsing. This article presents some results of the use of prosodic means to convey semantic nuances in sounding discourse, the implementation of intonation functions and various approaches to the study of intonation ins ounding discourse.

Textomatify – A Web Application to Automate Multiple Task like Text Recognition from Image, Speech Recognition, Machine Translation

The aim of our project to automate the application to overcome from the language barrier among countries and also states within the country, the above-mentioned application will perform the various features in the application. Language technology has become pervasive in everyday life. Neural networks are a key component in this technology thanks to their ability to model large amounts of data. Text recognition in images is a research area which attempts to develop a computer system with the ability to automatically read the text from images. Speech is the first important primary need, and the most convenient means of communication between people. The communication among human computer interaction is called human computer interface. Machine translation is a domain of computational linguistics, which explores the use of software to translate text from one language to another. Machine translation simply performs substitution of words in one language for words in other, but that may not assure good translation. In the Project we combine all three domains in one system. Here we integrate Text extract from image, Speech recognition and Text translation from one language to another in one web application.

Gestures analysis during a picture description task: Capacity to discriminate between healthy controls, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease

The main objective of this study is to compare the gesticulation of the five study groups that conform the evolution from healthy ageing to a moderate stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD). As a secondary aim we intend to assess the capacity of co-speech gestures to discriminate between the two main groups of amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), executive MCI (ex-MCI) and temporo-medial MCI (tm-MCI), since this last group is the one with the highest rate of progression to AD. 52 participants were divided into five groups, according to their global cognition state (healthy controls, ex-MCI, tm-MCI, mild AD, and moderate AD). They were videotaped during a picture description task and their verbal (speech fluency and lexical diversity measures) and non-verbal communication (gestural production) performances were analysed. Statistical analysis confirmed that the global cognition performance was worse in patients with greater cognitive impairment, and MCI groups differ from each other in delayed recall memory. Concerning verbal communication, time of speech was lower in the healthy control group when compared with the rest of the groups. In the non-verbal communication aspect, a trend toward statistical significance was found in iconic gestures per minute, iconic gestures per word and iconic gestures for word substitution. Pairwise comparison highlighted these variables as potential differentiating factor between ex-MCI, tm-MCI and mild AD groups. As for the first objective, our study results demonstrated there was not a linear progression in gestural production among groups. In relation to the second objective, outcomes pointed to a great value, since iconic gestures variables have been identified as a potential marker for the specific identification of tm-MCI individuals, who are a subgroup of amnestic MCI with a greater predisposition to progress to Alzheimer's disease.

Constructive Interpretation and Text Transformation

This paper considers the project of active transformation of texts through the substitution of words, for instance by the ‘N+7’ method of the Oulipans, which replaces each noun in a text by the seventh subsequent noun in a particular (print) dictionary. This method is conservative in that it only allows for intracate- gorial substitutions; the present paper aims to extend existing semantic interpre- tative mechanisms in order to handle intercategorial substitution. A type shifting system is proposed for this purpose, and applied to an example, followed by discussion of implications and extensions of the system.

Pattern-Based Syntactic Simplification of Compound and Complex Sentences

With the advent of new technologies, simplifying the text automatically has been very popular and of high importance among natural language researchers during the last decade. The predominant research done in the area of Automatic Sentence Simplification(ASS) is inclined to either lexical or syntactical simplification of sentences. From the literature survey, it is observed that existing research in lexical simplification makes use of word substitution technique. This causes word sense ambiguity in cases where the word synonyms are not appropriate for a sentence in the given context. In contrast syntactical simplification though is accurate and applicable to Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks requires tremendous efforts to construct rules for a given domain. The research proposes a framework called, Pattern-based Automatic Syntactic Simplification(PASS) which identifies sentences and applies rules based on grammatical patterns to simplify the sentences thereby making it more generic for NLP tasks. PASS is evaluated by human experts to rate the usefulness of the framework based on fluency, adequacy and simplicity of the sentences. Furthermore, the framework is automatically evaluated with the available online corpus using automatic metrics of SARI, BLEU, and FKGL. The proposed approach generates promising results in the field of ASS and could be used as a preliminary module for NLP tasks as well as other natural language-related applications like summarization, anaphora resolution, question-answering, and many more.

An Analysis of the Spelling Errors In the Written English of Saudi University Students

This study investigates the spelling errors that characterize the writing of Saudi university students. The errors are analyzed with a view to finding their causes. The analysis shows that the errors fall into three categories- substitution (letter and word substitution), addition and omission. The authors conclude that the letter substitution error is a characteristic feature of the spelling of the subjects,. The authors also conclude that the subjects' Arabic dialect is responsible for causing such type of substitution. The other types, which occurred less frequently, are attributed to interference from both Arabic and English. The authors finally recommend a kind of instruction focusing on the learners' attested errors considering priorities.

Використання елементів методу глобального читання при формуванні навички читання у дітей з порушеннями розумового розвитку молодшого шкільного віку

The article contains the results of theoretical generalization and practical work on the formation of reading skills in children with intellectual disabilities of primary school age. The success and speed of the child's progress in mastering reading depends on the formation of mental functions, which are the basis of the functional basis of reading. The most important components of the process of reading formation include: vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation of sounds and words of different syllables, phonemic processes, visual and acoustic perception, auditory and visual memory, constructive and dynamic practice, attention. Research based on the study of the process of learning the native language by students with normative development and the experience of teaching children with intellectual disabilities allowed to put forward methodological provisions, the importance of which becomes especially relevant, namely: communicative orientation of learning; unity in the implementation of areas of work: the development of speech and thinking; obligatory motivation of students' speech and speech activity; formation and reliance on it in educational activities; the relationship of oral and written speech in the process of their development. The article roughly identifies four stages of formation of the reading process: the formation of motivation, interest in the reading process; assimilation of sounds and letters; study of constituent structures and individual words; reading elementary texts. The relevance of the use of elements of the method of global reading of children with intellectual disabilities along with the use of orthodox-classical analytical-synthetic method of literacy. Positive dynamics of reading in students with intellectual disabilities bright. With the development of reading techniques less variability and individual characteristics in the reading process. The speed of reading from class to class increases due to the formation of the integrity of perception. The development of correct reading depending on the year of study can also be traced. The number of errors in each category is significantly reduced. But at all stages the main mistakes are repetition and substitution of words. The reason for this phenomenon is the inertia of nervous processes.

'Childrenese': A Pilot Survey on the Choice of Language in a Paediatric Dental Setting.

To ensure good communication with paediatric patients, members of the dental team typically avoid dental jargon by using appropriate substitution of words. This language of word replacement is sometimes termed 'Childrenese'. This survey was carried out to collect a formulary of perceived effective and ineffective word replacements from paediatric dental team members. It assesses the impact of factors such as age and gender on the respondents' word choice. The formulary aims to aid general dental practitioners in communicating with paediatric dental patients.

STRATEGIES AND PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE OF THE WORD FUCK TRANSLATION IN THE WOLF OF WALL STREET MOVIE

The choice of strategy for translating the word fuck in The Wolf of Wall Street movie has its own impact on the equivalence of pragmatic meanings in the target text. This study aims to explain: (1) form, pragmatic function, and translation strategy of the word fuck, and (2) the implication of the word fuck translation strategy on pragmatic equivalence in The Wolf of Wall Street movie. The words of fuck were identified from the both English and Indonesian subtitles. Then, the data were categorized and the implications were investigated. The results indicate that there are 506 words of fuck which are classified into three forms, namely: interjection, emphasizer, and expletive slot filler. The functions conveyed by these taboo words are: catharsis, abusive, and social. These taboo words were translated using omission (72.9%), cultural substitution (15.0%), neutral words (11.5%) and loan word (0.6%). The omission and the neutral word strategy largely eliminated the function of the word fuck, whereas the loan word and cultural substitution strategy were able to maintain the function of the word fuck. However, the very large percentage of use of the omission strategy makes the translation results lose much of its pragmatic function and emotive value.
 Keywords: Translation strategy, taboo word, pragmatic equivalence, the wolf of wall street movie

An exploration of lexical selection in adults who stutter

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: People who stutter (PWS) are able to anticipate a moment of stuttering. We wished to explore whether this anticipation might be reflected by either unusual word choice and/or delayed word production during a single-word confrontation naming task. METHOD: Nine PWS and nine age- and sex-matched fluent controls completed the single-word confrontation-naming task. Groups were compared on numbers of word-finding and fluency errors, response latency, and naming accuracy, measured against a novel ‘usuality’ criterion. Regression modelling of response accuracy and latency was conducted. RESULTS: The groups did not differ on naming task performance, except for a greater frequency of response latency errors in the PWS group. For both groups, responses containing word-finding or fluency errors were more likely to be non-usual names, and these were associated with longer latencies than accurate responses. For PWS, latency was positively related to participant age, and accuracy inversely related to stuttering severity. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide insights into word substitution as a generalized behaviour, its function, and associated time-cost. Group-specific relationships imply greater sensitivity in PWS to changing demands and capacities, and highlight the complexity of interactions between physical stuttering behaviour and verbal avoidance.

Older adult recognition error patterns when listening to interrupted speech and speech in steady-state noise.

This study examined sentence recognition errors made by older adults in degraded listening conditions compared to a previous sample of younger adults. We examined speech recognition errors made by older normal-hearing adults who repeated sentences that were corrupted by steady-state noise (SSN) or periodically interrupted by noise to preserve 33%, 50%, or 66% of the sentence. Responses were transcribed and coded for the number and type of keyword errors. Errors increased with decreasing preservation of the sentence. Similar sentence recognition was observed between SSN and the greatest amount of interruption (33%). Errors were predominately at the word level rather than at the phoneme level and consisted of omission or substitution of keywords. Compared to younger listeners, older listeners made more total errors and omitted more whole words when speech was highly degraded. They also made more whole word substitutions when speech was more preserved. In addition, the semantic relatedness of the substitution errors to the sentence context varied according to the distortion condition, with greater context effects in SSN than interruption. Overall, older listeners made errors reflecting poorer speech representations. Error analyses provide a more detailed account of speech recognition by identifying changes in the type of errors made across listening conditions and listener groups.

What does parity mean? A detailed comparison of ASR and human transcription errors

Automatic speech recognition (ASR) has seen dramatic improvements as a result of advances in deep learning. This has led several recent studies to conclude that ASR is approaching parity with human performance, at least in certain speech contexts. These studies use average word error rate (WER) as their primary evaluation metric, dividing the total insertions + substitutions + deletions by the reference length (WER = (I + D+S)/Nr), to compare ASR systems to human transcribers. Averaging combined error types obscures important differences between human and ASR error patterns which impact human comprehension of the output. Human transcribers tend to delete pragmatic and discourse markers (such as fillers and backchannels) and disfluencies, whereas ASR tends to make more substitution errors on words. In conversational settings listeners are able to recover from missing discourse markers, function words, or backchannels, but word substitutions are harder to recover from because they interrupt the information flow. WER is a reasonable first pass metric of ASR performance, but when it comes to communicative parity, it averages out important ways in which it differs from human transcription.

Enhancement of Text Analysis Using Context-Aware Normalization of Social Media Informal Text

We proposed an application and data variations-independent, generic social media Textual Variations Handler (TVH) to deal with a wide range of noise in textual data generated in various social media (SM) applications for enhanced text analysis. The aim is to build an effective hybrid normalization technique that ensures the use of useful information of the noisy text in its intended form instead of filtering them out to analyze SM text better. The proposed TVH performs context-aware text normalization based on intended meaning to avoid the wrong word substitution. We integrate the TVH with state-of-the-art (SOTA) deep-learning-based text analysis methods to enhance their performance for noisy SM text data. The proposed scheme shows promising improvement in the text analysis of informal SM text in terms of precision, recall, accuracy, and F1-score in simulation.

Metamorphoses of the conceptualization of SPORT in audio-visual translation

AbstractDue to the interrelation with culture, politics, economy and other major spheres of social life, SPORT discourse occupies quite a significant part of a modern society, therefore, the analysis of SPORT metaphors is important and necessary. The research of conceptual metaphor within the framework of translation studies is a relatively new and unexplored field in Lithuanian linguistics. Since SPORT metaphors are especially popular in political communication, the cases where sport in public discourse is considered as a visualization of policies and related areas are frequently investigated. The aim of the research was to reveal translation strategies used for the translation of SPORT metaphors from English to Lithuanian in audiovisual discourse related to SPORT. The research revealed that four translation strategies, namely: word for word translation, substitution, paraphrase, complete omission and retention were employed by the translators. The results of the research also demonstrated, that the most frequent source domain for the sport metaphors was WAR, which was the most frequently preserved using word for word translation strategy. In the case of other translation strategies, either the source domain was substituted in the translated text, or, in the majority of cases, the metaphorization was escaped. The target domain SPORT was represented similarly in both the source and the target languages, either implicitly by a larger context, or explicitly by lexical units containing a semantic element “related to SPORT”. The research revealed that while choosing the translation strategy for the translation of conceptual metaphors, three key factors should be taken into consideration, such as cultural, cognitive and sociological factors.Conceptual metaphors are an inseparable part of SPORT and they reveal in what terms SPORT can be defined in a particular culture. In order to understand how conceptual metaphors are perceived and what ideas are conveyed it is necessary to analyse the way they are transferred from the source culture to the target one.

The Social Nature of Translation: The Shift from Textual to Contextual

Adopting Latour’s 'Actor Network Theory’, This paper aims to highlight the Sociological Turn of translation studies and approach translation practice as a social action. Accordingly, the process of translating is tackled from a creative perspective. We attempt to illustrate that translation is no longer a word for word substitution; however, it is a cultural product that aims at reproduction of meaning. Furthermore, translation is more than a matter of linguistic realization and language comparison, and is incorporated in the social and cultural context. The present paper explores not only the influence of the individual translation agent, but also the impact of these agents working together as a network in translation production with a particular insight into the huge movement of translation which had been funded and supported during the Abbasid Era(Golden Age), we attempt to explore how translators interact with other actors and actants to produce knowledge. It has been concluded that translation actors and their individual social impact can be infuential upon the ultimate translation product. Consequently, the translator is not merely a technician who authomatically transfers the meaning of a text from one language into another one. Instead, he is an agent of change and transformation.

Exploring Rogeting: Implications for academic integrity

Poor paraphrasing can be a sign of underdeveloped writing skills that can lead to plagiarism. One example of poor paraphrasing is Rogeting, which is the substitution of words with their synonyms using Roget’s thesaurus or other digital synonym providers. In this position paper, we discuss Rogeting as a form of poor paraphrasing that may lead to academic integrity breaches, such as plagiarism. We discuss methods of identifying Rogeted text, concluding with practical recommendations for educators about how to better support student writers so they can avoid Rogeting in favour of developing their writing skills.