Substituent Parameters Research Articles

Substituent effect in [2+4] Diels—Alder cycloaddition reactions of anthracene with C2X2 (X = H, F, Cl, Me): A computational investigation

In the present article, a DFT approach is used at the M06-2X/6-311G((d,p)) level of theory to survey [2+4] Diels—Alder cycloaddition reactions of anthracene with C2X2 (X = H, F, Cl, Me). To illustrate the interaction between two fragments in transition states and products, the energy decomposition analysis is employed. The stability of two feasible products are contrasted. The substituent impact barrier height (ΔE‡) and thermodynamic parameters (ΔG‡ and ΔH‡) of this reaction are found. To check the advancement of the reactions, Wiberg bond indices are applied. Furthermore, the synchronicity values of this reaction are identified.

Trifluoromethyl substitution enhances photoinduced activity against breast cancer cells but reduces ligand exchange in Ru(ii) complex.

A series of five ruthenium complexes containing triphenyl phosphine groups known to enhance both cellular penetration and photoinduced ligand exchange, cis-[Ru(bpy)2(P(p-R-Ph)3)(CH3CN)]2+, where bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine and P(p-R-Ph)3 represent para-substituted triphenylphosphine ligands with R = –OCH3 (1), –CH3 (2) –H (3), –F (4), and –CF3 (5), were synthesized and characterized. The photolysis of 1–5 in water with visible light (λirr ≥ 395 nm) results in the substitution of the coordinated acetonitrile with a solvent molecule, generating the corresponding aqua complex as the single photoproduct. A 3-fold variation in quantum yield was measured with 400 nm irradiation, Φ400, where 1 is the most efficient with a Φ400 = 0.076(2), and 5 the least photoactive complex, with Φ400 = 0.026(2). This trend is unexpected based on the red-shifted metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) absorption of 1 as compared to that of 5, but can be correlated to the substituent Hammett para parameters and pKa values of the ancillary phosphine ligands. Complexes 1–5 are not toxic towards the triple negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 in the dark, but 3 and 5 are >4.2 and >19-fold more cytotoxic upon irradiation with blue light, respectively. A number of experiments point to apoptosis, and not to necrosis or necroptosis, as the mechanism of cell death by 5 upon irradiation. These findings provide a foundation for understanding the role of phosphine ligands on photoinduced ligand substitution and show the enhancement afforded by –CF3 groups on photochemotherapy, which will aid the future design of photocages for photochemotherapeutic drug delivery.

Computational Analysis of Mesomerism in para-Substituted mer-NCN Pincer Platinum(II) Complexes, Including its Relationships with Hammett σp Substituent Parameters.

Density Functional Theory studies of square-planar PtII pincer structures, (4-Z-NCN)PtCl ([4-Z-NCN]- =[4-Z-2,6-(Me2 NCH2 )2 C6 H2 -N,C,N]- , Z=H, NO2 , CF3 , CO2 H, CHO, Cl, Br, I, F, SMe, SiMe3 , tBu, OH, NH2 , NMe2 ), enable characterisation of mesomerism for the pincer-Pt interaction. Relationships between Hammett σp substituent parameters of Z and DFT data obtained from NBO6 and AOMix computation are used to probe the interaction of the 5dyz orbital of platinum with π-orbitals of the arene ring. Analogous computation for 2,6-(Me2 CH2 )2 C6 H3 Z (Z=H, CF3 , CHO, Cl, Br, I, F, SMe, SiMe3 , tBu, OH, NH2 ) and (4-H-NCN)PtZ allows an estimation of the relative substituent effects of "(CH2 NMe2 )2 PtZ" on π-delocalisation in the pincer system.

Palladium-catalyzed aryloxy- and alkoxycarbonylation of aromatic iodides in γ-valerolactone as bio-based solvent

Fossil-based solvents and triethylamine as a toxic and volatile base were successfully replaced with γ-valerolactone as a non-volatile solvent and K2CO3 as inorganic base in the alkoxy- and aryloxycarbonylation of aryl iodides using phosphine-free Pd catalyst systems. By this, the traditional systems were not simply replaced but also significantly improved. In the study, the effects of different reaction parameters, i.e. the use of several other solvents, the temperature, the carbon monoxide pressure, the base and the catalyst concentrations, were evaluated in details on the efficiency of the carbonylations. To gather some information on the mechanism of these reactions, the effects of the electronic parameters (σ) of various aromatic substituents of the aryl iodides as well as the influence of para-substitution of phenol were investigated on the activity. For a comparison, the aryl-substituted aryl iodides were also reacted with methanol and aryl iodide was also alkoxycarbonylated using several different lower alcohols. From the observed correlations between the electronic parameters of the aromatic substituents and the rates, it appears that the rate determining step is the oxidative addition of Ar–I to Pd0, provided that sufficient amounts of nucleophiles are present for the ester formation. If this is not the case, the rate of nucleophile attack might determine the overall rate.

Synthesis and conformational study of some N-nitroso-t(3)-benzyl-r(2),c(6)-bis(aryl)piperidin-4-one oximes using NMR spectra

A series of heavily substituted N-nitroso-t(3)-benzyl-bis(aryl)piperidin-4-one oximes 9–13 have been synthesized by mixing N-nitroso-t(3)-benzyl-bis(aryl)piperidin-4-ones 5–8 with hydroxylamine hydrochloride and sodium acetate trihydrate in ethanol medium. The synthesized compounds 9–13 were characterized by elemental analysis, IR and NMR spectral studies (1H, 13C, HOMOCOSY and HSQC). At room temperature the N-nitroso-t(3)-benzyl-r(2),c(6)-bis(aryl)piperidin-4-one oximes 9–13 exist in two isomeric forms and the isomers are labeled as syn (nitroso oxygen is same side to N–OH group) and anti (nitroso oxygen is opposite side to N–OH group) isomers. Analysis of the spectral data shows that in 10–13 the NOH group is anti to the benzylic group at C(3). The favoured conformations of both the isomeric forms of N-nitroso oximes were determined by comparison of spectral data with those of the corresponding parent N-nitroso amines 5–8 and with the aid of substituent parameters. The observed coupling constants in 9 predict alternate chair form CA for the syn isomer and a highly distorted boat form B1 (aryl group at C(2) occupies flagpole position) for the anti isomer. Conformational analysis performed through DFT using Gaussian 09 program calculations also supports the conformations for the syn isomer of 9 whereas for the anti isomer of 9 there is a discrepancy between the results derived from theoretical and coupling constant studies. For N-nitroso-t(3)-benzyl oxime derivatives 10–13 the observed coupling constants predict an equilibrium mixture of boat form B1 and alternate chair form CA for the anti isomers and an equilibrium mixture of boat forms B1 and B5 (both the aryl groups occupy axial like orientations) for the syn isomers. The both syn and anti isomers of 9–13 the preferred conformation of benzylic group at C(3) is predicted to be A in which the phenyl group is gauche to C(4) and anti to C(2).

Quantitative Mapping of Molecular Substituents to Macroscopic Properties Enables Predictive Design of Oligoethylene Glycol-Based Lithium Electrolytes.

Molecular details often dictate the macroscopic properties of materials, yet due to their vastly different length scales, relationships between molecular structure and bulk properties can be difficult to predict a priori, requiring Edisonian optimizations and preventing rational design. Here, we introduce an easy-to-execute strategy based on linear free energy relationships (LFERs) that enables quantitative correlation and prediction of how molecular modifications, i.e., substituents, impact the ensemble properties of materials. First, we developed substituent parameters based on inexpensive, DFT-computed energetics of elementary pairwise interactions between a given substituent and other constant components of the material. These substituent parameters were then used as inputs to regression analyses of experimentally measured bulk properties, generating a predictive statistical model. We applied this approach to a widely studied class of electrolyte materials: oligo-ethylene glycol (OEG)–LiTFSI mixtures; the resulting model enables elucidation of fundamental physical principles that govern the properties of these electrolytes and also enables prediction of the properties of novel, improved OEG–LiTFSI-based electrolytes. The framework presented here for using context-specific substituent parameters will potentially enhance the throughput of screening new molecular designs for next-generation energy storage devices and other materials-oriented contexts where classical substituent parameters (e.g., Hammett parameters) may not be available or effective.

Effective Control of the Electron‐donating Ability of Phosphines by using Phosphazenyl and Phosphoniumylidyl Substituents

Phosphoniumylidyl and phosphazenyl groups are effective substituents to increase the electron‐donating ability of tertiary phosphines. However, the influence of structural variations among those substituents on the electronic properties of the phosphines is little explored. Herein, we show that protonation of the ylidic carbon atom of phosphoniumylidyl phosphines increases the Tolman electronic parameter (TEP) by ΔTEP = 16.0–18.8 cm–1. Furthermore, phosphazenyl phosphines were synthesized with isopropyl groups (NP{iPr}3) and tetramethylguanidino groups (NP{tmg}3) at the phosphonium center. Determination of their TEP values reveals a remarkable low substituent parameter of χ = –18.5 cm–1 for the NP(tmg)3 group. In addition, we prepared the corresponding gold(I) complexes and determined their solid‐state structures using single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction studies to analyze the steric profile of the new phosphine ligands.

Crystal structure, 1H and 13C NMR spectral studies of 1,2,4,5-oxadiazaborole derivatives

Substituent effects on 1H and 13C NMR chemical shifts of 5-substituted phenyl-3-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2,4,5-oxadiazaboroles (1a-r) were studied respectively. Single and duel substituent parameters were used for the correlation analysis of substituent-induced chemical shifts with σ, F and R constants. The calculations have shown the polar and resonance substituent effects on N-H proton and C=N carbon atoms. The ρ value was found positive for compounds (1a-r), which means that the substituent effect is normal. Additionally, crystal structure of compound (1i) was also studied. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were carried out to calculate the theoretical chemical shifts, bond distances and bond angles.

Trans Influence of Ligands on the Oxidation of Gold(I) Complexes.

Gold(I) complexes are considered active species toward oxidative addition; current understanding indicates a different mechanism in contrast to other late transition metals, but a rational understanding of the reactivity profile is lacking. Herein, we propose that the accessibility of the gold(I) center to tri- or tetra-coordination is critical in the oxidative process involving a tri- or tetra-coordinate gold(I) with the oxidizing reagent as one of the ligands as an intermediate. A computational study of the geometry of (Phen)R3PAu(I)NTf2 complexes shows that the accessibility of such tricoordinate species shows a good correlation with the "trans influence" of phosphine ligands: the weak σ-donating phosphine ligands promote tricoordination of gold(I) complexes. The oxidative addition to the asymmetric tricoordinate (Phen)R3PAu(I)NTf2 complexes with alkynyl hypervalent iodine reagents was built. The kinetic profile of the oxidative addition exhibits a good relationship to the Hammett substituent parameter (ρ = 3.75, R2 = 0.934), in which the gold(I) complexes bearing less σ-donating phosphine ligands increase the rate of oxidative addition. The positive ρ indicates a high sensitivity of the oxidative addition to the trans influence. The reactivity profile of oxidative addition to a linear bis(pyridine)gold(I) complex further supports that the oxidative addition to gold(I) complexes is promoted by ligands with small trans influence.

C(3) Functional Derivatives of the Blatter Radical.

A series of 3-substituted 1-phenyl-1,4-dihydrobenzo[e][1,2,4]triazin-4-yls 1 was prepared by addition of PhLi to 3-substituted benzo[e][1,2,4]triazines 2 followed by aerial oxidation. The scope of the C(3) substituents in the reaction was investigated, and 10 structurally diverse radicals 1 were isolated, their stability was assessed and properties were investigated with spectroscopic and electrochemical methods. Two radicals were analyzed with single-crystal XRD methods. Experimental data are compared to DFT results and correlated with Hammett substituent parameters.

Kinetic Studies of Donor-Acceptor Cyclopropanes: The Influence of Structural and Electronic Properties on the Reactivity.

The kinetics of (3+2) cycloaddition reactions of 18 different donor-acceptor cyclopropanes with the same aldehyde were studied by in situ NMR spectroscopy. Increasing the electron density of the donor residue accelerates the reaction by a factor of up to 50 compared to the standard system (donor group=phenyl), whereas electron-withdrawing substituents slow down the reaction by a factor up to 660. This behavior is in agreement with the Hammett substituent parameter σ. The obtained rate constants from the (3+2) cycloadditions correlate well with data from additionally studied (3+n) cycloadditions with a nitrone (n=3) and an isobenzofuran (n=4). A comparison of the kinetic data with the bond lengths in the cyclopropane (obtained by X-ray diffraction and computation), or the 1 H and 13 C NMR shifts, revealed no correlation. However, the computed relaxed force constants of donor-acceptor cyclopropanes proved to be a good indicator for the reactivity of the three-membered ring.

Predictable Substituent Control of CoIII/II Redox Potential and Spin Crossover in Bis(dipyridylpyrrolide)cobalt Complexes.

A family of five easily prepared tridentate monoanionic 2,5-dipyridyl-3-(R1)-4-(R2)-pyrrolide anions (dppR1,R2)-, varying in the nature of the R1 and R2 substituents [R1, R2 = CN, Ph; CO2Et, CO2Et; CO2Me, 4-Py; CO2Me, Me; Me, Me], has been used to generate the analogous family of neutral [CoII(dppR1,R2)2] complexes, two of which are structurally characterized at both 100 and 298 K. Both the oxidation and spin states of these complexes can be switched in response to appropriate external stimuli. All complexes, except [CoII(dppMe,Me)2], exhibit gradual spin crossover (SCO) in the solid state, and SCO activity is observed for three complexes in CDCl3 solution. The cobalt(II) centers in the low spin (LS) complexes are Jahn-Teller tetragonally compressed along the pyrrolide-Co-pyrrolide axis. The complexes in their high spin (HS) states are more distorted than in the LS states, as is also usually the case for SCO active iron(II) complexes. The reversible CoIII/II redox potentials are predictably tuned by choice of substituents R1 and R2, from -0.95 (Me,Me) to -0.45 (CN,Ph) V vs Fc+/Fc, with a linear correlation observed between E1/2(CoIII/II) and the Swain-Lupton parameters of the pyrrolide substituents.

13C NMR Spectroscopy: A Tool for Study of Conformational Analysis of 2-Aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ols

In this investigation, proton decoupled 13C NMR Spectroscopy was used as a tool for the study of conformations of differently substituted 2-aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ols. The fusion of the rings in 2-aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ols was conclusively proved to be trans-, from a comparison of the experimental and calculated values. The signal assignments were made on the basis of the model system and in this case trans-decahydroquinoline was taken as model system. Substituent parameters for methyl, hydroxyl, and phenyl groups were derived from analogous systems and incorporated in the model system to obtain the calculated values. An examination of the 13C chemical shift values indicated that the configuration of the hydroxyl group was equatorial in all the α-forms of 2-aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ols and that of β-form’s was axial. In 3-Methyl-2-aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ols the chemical shifts suggested equatorial configuration to methyl and phenyl groups. Further, for 1-Methyl-2-aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ol and 1,3-dimethyl-2-aryl-trans-decahydroquinolin-4-ols the 1-or N-methyl group was found to has a greater preference to the equatorial position.

Solvent, structural, quantum chemical study and antioxidative activity of symmetrical 1-methyl-2,6-bis[2-(substituted phenyl)ethenyl]pyridinium iodides

15 symmetric 1-methyl-2,6-bis[2-(substituted phenyl)ethenyl]pyridinium iodides were synthesized in this work. Their structures were characterized using IR, 1H and 13C NMR, and UV–Vis spectroscopy. DFT calculations indicated that s-trans/s-trans conformation prevail in all compounds. The effects of specific and non-specific solvent–solute interactions on the UV–Vis absorption maxima shifts were evaluated using linear solvation-free energy relationships (LSER), i.e., Kamlet–Taft and Catalan models. A linear free energy relationship (LFER) in the form of single substituent parameter equations (SSP) was used to postulate quantitative structure–property relations of substituent effect on NMR data. TD-DFT results showed dependence of electronic transition on the substituent effects. The push–pull character of these compounds was analyzed by differences in 13C chemical shift of the ethylenic double bond in 2- and 6-positions of cross-conjugated with pyridinum central ring. Also, the quotient of the occupations for the bonding π and anti-bonding π* orbitals of this bond was considered. Good correlations of the selected parameter between double bond lengths with π*/π and 13C chemical shift differences of the bridging group proved them to be adequate descriptor of push–pull character. Synthesized compounds were screened for the antioxidant activity, using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical methods, and results demonstrated moderate antioxidant potential.

Nε-Acryloyllysine Piperazides as Irreversible Inhibitors of Transglutaminase 2: Synthesis, Structure-Activity Relationships, and Pharmacokinetic Profiling.

Transglutaminase 2 (TGase 2)-catalyzed transamidation represents an important post-translational mechanism for protein modification with implications in physiological and pathophysiological conditions, including fibrotic and neoplastic processes. Consequently, this enzyme is considered a promising target for the diagnosis of and therapy for these diseases. In this study, we report on the synthesis and kinetic characterization of Nε-acryloyllysine piperazides as irreversible inhibitors of TGase 2. Systematic structural modifications on 54 new compounds were performed with a major focus on fluorine-bearing substituents due to the potential of such compounds to serve as radiotracer candidates for positron emission tomography. The determined inhibitory activities ranged from 100 to 10 000 M-1 s-1, which resulted in comprehensive structure-activity relationships. Structure-activity correlations using various substituent parameters accompanied by covalent docking studies provide an advanced understanding of the molecular recognition for this inhibitor class within the active site of TGase 2. Selectivity profiling of selected compounds for other transglutaminases demonstrated an excellent selectivity toward transglutaminase 2. Furthermore, an initial pharmacokinetic profiling of selected inhibitors was performed, including the assessment of potential membrane permeability and liver microsomal stability.

Electronic absorption spectra and fluorescent properties of non-associated 16,17-bis(alkoxy)violanthrone dyes and their dependence on the nature of substituent and solvent's parameters

This article is devoted to spectral properties of non-associated 16,17-dihydroxy- and dialkyloxy violanthrones, in order to study the relationship between the nature of alkoxy substituents and the UV/Vis absorption/emission characteristics of these dyes. Solvatochromic and solvatofluorochromic effects of the violanthrone derivatives are investigated as well.It is found that lengthening of the substituent's alkyl chain in the dye molecules results in a hypsochromic shift of the long-wavelength absorption band and does not influence the position of the emission band. This spectral behavior is explained by the interplay of the electron-releasing ability of the alkoxy substituents and the varying flatness of the dialkoxy substituted violanthrone molecules in their electronic ground and excited states. It is also shown that the position of the absorption and emission bands depends on the intensity of non-specific interactions between dyes and solvents, and linearly correlate with values of the Kirkwood and Lippert parameters.The results can be useful in process development of new light concentrators and photovoltaic films. Violanthrone derivatives can be used as various mixtures of non-associated and dimer forms with different UV/Vis spectral behavior, depending on dye concentration and medium polarity.

Substituent Effects on 13C NMR and 1H NMR Chemical Shifts of CH=N in Multi-substituted Benzylideneanilines

Fifty-three samples of multi-substituted benzylideneanilines XArCH=NArYs (abbreviated XBAYs) were synthesized and their NMR spectra were determined. An extensional study of substituent effects on the 1H NMR chemical shifts (δH(CH=N)) and 13C NMR chemical shifts (δC(CH=N)) of the CH=N bridging group from di-substituted to multi-substituted XBAYs was made based on a total of 182 samples of XBAYs, together with the NMR data of other 129 samples of di-substituted XBAYs quoted from literatures. The results show that the substituent specific cross-interaction effect parameter (Δ(∑σ)2) plays an important role in quantifying the δC(CH=N) values of XBAYs, but it is negligible for quantifying the δH(CH=N) values; the other substituent parameters also present different influences on the δC(CH=N) and δH(CH=N). On the whole, the contributions of X and Y to the δC(CH=N) of XBAYs are balanced, but the δH(CH=N) values of XBAYs mainly rely on the contributions of X.

Detailed solvent, structural, quantum chemical study and antimicrobial activity of isatin Schiff base

The ratios of E/Z isomers of sixteen synthesized 1,3-dihydro-3-(substituted phenylimino)-2H-indol-2-one were studied using experimental and theoretical methodology. Linear solvation energy relationships (LSER) rationalized solvent influence of the solvent–solute interactions on the UV–Vis absorption maxima shifts (νmax) of both geometrical isomers using the Kamlet-Taft equation. Linear free energy relationships (LFER) in the form of single substituent parameter equation (SSP) was used to analyze substituent effect on pKa, NMR chemical shifts and νmax values. Electron charge density was obtained by the use of Quantum Theory of Atoms in Molecules, i.e. Bader's analysis. The substituent and solvent effect on intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) were interpreted with the aid of time-dependent density functional (TD-DFT) method. Additionally, the results of TD-DFT calculations quantified the efficiency of ICT from the calculated charge-transfer distance (DCT) and amount of transferred charge (QCT). The antimicrobial activity was evaluated using broth microdilution method. 3D QSAR modeling was used to demonstrate the influence of substituents effect as well as molecule geometry on antimicrobial activity.

Self-assembled orthoester cryptands: orthoester scope, post-functionalization, kinetic locking and tunable degradation kinetics.

Dynamic adaptability and biodegradability are key features of functional, 21st century host-guest systems. We have recently discovered a class of tripodal supramolecular hosts, in which two orthoesters act as constitutionally dynamic bridgeheads. Having previously demonstrated the adaptive nature of these hosts, we now report the synthesis and characterization - including eight solid state structures - of a diverse set of orthoester cages, which provides evidence for the broad scope of this new host class. With the same set of compounds, we demonstrated that the rates of orthoester exchange and hydrolysis can be tuned over a remarkably wide range, from rapid hydrolysis at pH 8 to nearly inert at pH 1, and that the Taft parameter of the orthoester substituent allows an adequate prediction of the reaction kinetics. Moreover, the synthesis of an alkyne-capped cryptand enabled the post-functionalization of orthoester cryptands by Sonogashira and CuAAC "click" reactions. The methylation of the resulting triazole furnished a cryptate that was kinetically inert towards orthoester exchange and hydrolysis at pH > 1, which is equivalent to the "turnoff" of constitutionally dynamic imines by means of reduction. These findings indicate that orthoester cages may be more broadly useful than anticipated, e.g. as drug delivery agents with precisely tunable biodegradability or, thanks to the kinetic locking strategy, as ion sensors.

NMR-based investigations of acyl-functionalized piperazines concerning their conformational behavior in solution.

Selected N-benzoylated piperazine compounds were synthesized to study their conformational behavior using temperature-dependent 1H NMR spectroscopy. All investigated piperazines occur as conformers at room temperature resulting from the restricted rotation of the partial amide double bond. In the case of selected mono-N-benzoylated and unsymmetrically N,N′-substituted derivatives, the appearance of the 1H NMR spectrum was further shaped by the limited interconversion of the piperazine chair conformations. Therefore, two different coalescence points TC were determined and their resulting activation energy barriers ΔG‡ were calculated to be between 56 and 80 kJ mol−1. In most of the cases, TC and ΔG‡ for the amide site appeared to be higher than the corresponding values for the ring inversion. The influences of substituents on rotational and inversion barriers were analyzed by correlation to Hammett constants. The obtained results are discussed and interpreted in the context of literature data. An additional aryl substituent connected at the amine site led to reduced rotational and inversion barriers compared to the free secondary amine. To support and evidence the findings from the NMR analyses, single crystals of selected piperazines were obtained and XRD analyses were performed. To underline the results, two potential TGase 2 inhibitors were investigated showing energy barriers with similar values.