Subsistence Catches Research Articles

Fishing for subsistence constitutes a livelihood safety net for populations dependent on aquatic foods around the world

Fishing for subsistence constitutes a livelihood safety net for poverty, malnutrition and gender inequality for populations dependent upon aquatic foods around the world. Here we provide global estimates showing that almost the same amount of small-scale fishers engage in subsistence fishing at some point during the year as in commercial employment and use subsistence estimates to measure small-scale fisheries’ livelihood safety net function. In 2016, we estimate that 52.8 million people were engaged in subsistence fishing at some point during the year, while another 60.2 million people were commercially employed (90% of global fisheries employment). From 14 country case studies, it was possible to estimate that the subsistence catch provided an average apparent intake of six nutrients critical for positive health outcomes, equivalent to 26% of the recommended daily nutrient intake for 112.5 million people, higher than the national average contribution of beef or poultry.

Correlation of Mercury Occurrence with Age, Elemental Composition, and Life History in Sea-Run Food Fish from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago’s Lower Northwest Passage

As mercury emissions continue and climate-mediated permafrost thaw increases the burden of this contaminant in northern waters, Inuit from a Northwest passage community in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago pressed for an assessment of their subsistence catches. Sea-run salmonids (n = 537) comprising Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), lake trout (S. namaycush), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), and cisco (C. autumnalis, C. sardinella) were analyzed for muscle mercury. Methylmercury is a neurotoxin and bioaccumulated with fish age, but other factors including selenium and other elements, diet and trophic level as assessed by stable isotopes of nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ13C), as well as growth rate, condition, and geographic origin, also contributed depending on the species, even though all the fish shared a similar anadromous or sea-run life history. Although mean mercury concentrations for most of the species were ~0.09 µg·g−1 wet weight (ww), below the levels described in several jurisdictions for subsistence fisheries (0.2 µg·g−1 ww), 70% of lake trout were above this guideline (0.35 µg·g−1 ww), and 19% exceeded the 2.5-fold higher levels for commercial sale. We thus urge the development of consumption advisories for lake trout for the protection of pregnant women and young children and that additionally, periodic community-based monitoring be initiated.

Sustainable fisheries are essential but not enough to ensure well‐being for the world’s fishers

AbstractEffective fisheries management is necessary for the long‐term sustainability of fisheries and the economic benefits that they provide, but focusing only on ecological sustainability risks disregarding ultimate goals related to well‐being that must be achieved through broader social policy. An analysis of global landings data shows that average fishing wages in 36%–67% of countries, home to 69%–95% of fishers worldwide, are likely below their nationally determined minimum living wage (which accounts for costs of food, shelter, clothing, health and education). Furthermore, even if all fisheries in every country were perfectly managed to achieve their Maximum Sustainable Yield, a common sustainability target, average incomes of fishers in up to 49 countries—70% of fishers worldwide—would still not meet minimum living wages. Access to decent work and livelihoods are fundamental human rights, including for all fisherfolk around the world, and strategies to support their well‐being must therefore integrate a much wider set of perspectives, disciplines and institutions. Key first steps for fisheries researchers are to more fully recognize and estimate fisheries benefits to households—including income from women and/or alternative employment, unreported landings, or shadow values of subsistence catch—and to help identify and learn from economic equity outcomes in rebuilt fisheries around the world.

Urban market amplifies strong species selectivity in Amazonian artisanal fisheries

Abstract Despite Amazonia possessing the highest freshwater biodiversity on Earth, urban landing data show how huge fishing pressure is placed on only a dozen species. However, truly characterising the fishery and understanding the drivers of species selectivity is challenging, given the neglect of artisanal fishing activity, who may catch most of the Amazon’s fish. We register the catch of 824 fishing trips by interviewing artisanal fishers in their rural riverside communities. We use these data to characterise the artisanal fishery of the Rio Purus, the main fish source sub-system for the Amazon’s largest city (Manaus), and investigate the factors determining catch composition. Fishers caught 80 fish species, yet just four species made up over half of the harvested biomass. Urban markets appear to drive greater selectivity, with a significantly lower species diversity in commercial compared to subsistence catches. Fish catch composition varied significantly both seasonally and with geographical remoteness from Manaus. The spatial turnover in catch composition appears to be driven by urban access, with more commercially important species dominating where Manaus-based fish-buyers frequent. Our data may partially explain observed overfishing in some commercially important species, particularly as most Amazonians now live in urban areas.

Modeling Atlantic herring fisheries as multiscalar human-natural systems

Fisheries contribute to food and nutrition security, livelihoods, and poverty alleviation for billions of people globally. However, human-environmental interactions in fisheries are rarely assessed locally, regionally, and globally at the same time, limiting social-ecological resilience in fisheries management. We evaluated worldwide catches of a keystone forage fish (Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus) over 65 years (1950–2014); modeled local, regional, and global interactions among industrial, artisanal, subsistence, and recreational fishing sectors; and predicted future catches using a multifaceted and multilayered human-nature coupling framework for assessing social-ecological interactions within and across adjacent and distant fisheries (termed “metacouplings”). Across 17 exclusive economic zones (EEZs), catches by nations in their own EEZs (7.1 × 107 metric tons [MT]) outweighed those in adjacent EEZs (5.3 × 107 MT). However, adjacent-EEZ fishing was the largest-tonnage fishing type in more EEZs (53 %), reflecting the proximity of Northern/Western European fishing nations and regulations conducive to fishing in neighboring waters. Catches in distant (non-adjacent) EEZs were relatively small (1.2 × 107 MT). Fishing-sector interactions were generally positive but notably negative for artisanal fishing, which declined with increasing industrial and recreational catches in five EEZs (29 %). Combined with projected declines in artisanal and subsistence catches in parts of Germany, Norway, and Sweden, metacoupling interactions could elicit harmful financial, food-supply, and food/nutrition security outcomes for small-scale fishers if metacouplings remain absent from management programs. However, quantitative and conceptual tools developed herein enable fisheries managers to identify where, when, and how to maximize positive and minimize negative metacoupling interactions and thereby ensure continued ecological, economic, nutritional, and sociocultural benefits for fisheries stakeholders, locally to globally.

Linking Multiscalar Fisheries Using Metacoupling Models

Marine fisheries are social-ecological systems important for human health and livelihoods. However, research approaches that consider human-nature interactions within as well as between adjacent and distant fisheries are scarce. As such, we measured and modeled marine fisheries catches at local and regional scales over 65 years (1950–2014), assessed cross-scalar interactions among fishing types (artisanal, subsistence, industrial, recreational), and predicted future catches using the metacoupling framework, a new approach for evaluating human-nature interactions within and across adjacent and distant fisheries (metacouplings). Across taxa examined (mahi-mahi [Coryphaena hippurus], Atlantic bluefin tuna [Thunnus thynnus], cods [Gadidae]), 75% of catches (8.5 million metric tons [MMT]) were made by nations in their own exclusive economic zones (EEZs; Type 1 fishing). However, catches in adjacent EEZs (Type 2 fishing, 1.0 MMT) and distant EEZs and the high seas (Type 3 fishing, 1.9 MMT) increased substantially for all taxa at certain times, becoming consistently important for tuna and cods after 1980. Moreover, Types 1–3 fishing interacted in ways that affect humans differentially across fisheries. For instance, tuna artisanal and subsistence catches (Type 1) decreased with increasing Type 2 and Type 3 industrial fishing, respectively. Cod subsistence catches declined with increasing Type 2/3 industrial fishing and Type 1 artisanal fishing, whereas fishing-type interactions were largely positive for mahi-mahi, causing catches to increase across sectors. Overall, metacouplings affect humans in positive and negative ways that vary across scales and fisheries systems, galvanizing the need for metacoupling-informed fisheries research, policy, and management programs.

Pre‐Columbian fisheries catch reconstruction for a subtropical estuary in South America

AbstractSmall‐scale fisheries provide food and livelihoods for thousands of people along the Brazilian coastline. However, considerable uncertainties still surround the extent to which artisanal and subsistence fisheries contribute to the total of national landings and their historical ecological significance. Fisheries monitoring is deficient in Brazil, and historical records are limited to irregular accounts spanning the last few decades, while this coastline has supported human populations for at least 6,000 years. Here, we estimate pre‐Columbian subsistence catches for a large subtropical estuary in southern Brazil. Our results suggest that prehistoric populations may have extracted volumes of fish biomass higher than or comparable with historical subsistence fisheries in the region, and that the latter is likely underestimated. If a long‐term perspective is required to evaluate the current economic value and status of fisheries in subtropical and tropical South America, this should go beyond the historical time interval and integrate the contribution of pre‐Columbian archaeology.

The link between risk taking, fish catches, and social standing: Untangling a complex cultural landscape

Understanding linkages between socio-cultural and environmental factors in fisheries promotes a successful response to conflicts. Misunderstanding of resource user's drivers and goals in management interventions can lead to unintended consequences. Holistic analysis approaches are required in order to resolve conflicts for these complex socio-ecological systems. An empirical study of small-scale fisheries in Costa Rica analyses the relationships between fishers and their environment using a Cultural Landscape approach. The cultural landscape is described on three dimensions i) lifestyle and cultural identity ii) fishers´ perceptions of the local environment, and iii) dependence on subsistence catch. A heuristic model was built to improve the understanding of links between these three dimensions facilitating the inclusion of fishers´ expectations in the policy making process. Bi-variate and non-parametric statistics was applied to subsistence catch data and ethnographic attributes to determine the relationships in the cultural landscape. The three-dimensional analysis uncovers that high catch levels are associated with social status, and both are also linked to drug and alcohol use and risk taking. Social status and substance abuse are also linked to lifestyle and job satisfaction. Even though an important ethical consideration arises in this particular fishery with respect to drug and alcohol use, it is evident that taking account of the cultural landscape in fisheries management interventions is likely to improve outcomes. Knowledge of the cultural landscape enhances the understanding of positive feedback links between the social, cultural, and the ecological dimensions of fisheries systems, which may increase the likelihood of sustainable use of fisheries resources.

The market and shadow value of informal fish catch: a framework and application to Panama

Fisheries catches are known to be widely underreported, and much of their value flows in informal markets. Goods and services that are not directly sold in a market also have a corresponding economic value, here termed ‘shadow value’, which can apply to discarded fish—or those that are consumed but not sold (e.g., subsistence catches). Here, we estimate the monetary value of fisheries catches in Panama that are landed but not reported, or that are discarded at sea; this includes catches from artisanal and industrial fleets, as well as recreational and subsistence fisheries. Based on available data, we estimate that the market and shadow value of unreported catches in Panama in 2010 was around US$92 million, equal to approximately 43% of the total reported landed value. In the case of discarded fish, the shadow value represents the potential but entirely unrealized economic benefit of landing such fish; in the case of unreported landings, unreported market value represents only the first link in the potentially sophisticated informal seafood economy. One must be careful in considering these results for policy. It is possible that, rather than seeking to capture these ‘lost’ benefits, fish that are discarded or unreported should not have been caught at all, for example, if they are juveniles or of threatened species; conversely, unreported subsistence catches are crucial for food security throughout the world. These results help contextualize the scale of unreported fisheries in economic terms, and can inform subsequent policies and strategies to ensure social, ecological, and economic sustainability.

Reconstructed Marine Fisheries Catches at a Remote Island Group: Pitcairn Islands (1950–2014)

The remote Pitcairn Island Group in the South Pacific was designated one of the world’s largest marine reserves in 2016, encompassing some of the few remaining near-pristine areas within EEZ boundaries. Pitcairn's domestic fisheries are small-scale, and consist mainly of subsistence (non-commercial) and limited artisanal (commercial) catches. There is no locally-based industrial (large-scale commercial) fishery and the level of foreign industrial activity in recent times has been minimal, due in part to the low biomass of commercially valuable species, along with economic constraints of the EEZ’s geographic isolation. Using a catch reconstruction method we estimated the total domestic marine catches for the Pitcairn Islands from 1950 to 2014. We show that overall the Pitcairn Islands’ small-scale fisheries catches were almost 2.5 times higher than the data reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations on behalf of the Pitcairn Islands, however, this primarily reflects discrepancies prior to the 1980s. Overall, catches for the subsistence and artisanal sectors started with around 12 t∙year-1 in 1950, but declined to 4 t∙year-1 by 2014. Domestic reconstructed subsistence catch levels were entirely driven by changes in the human population on the island, with reconstructed artisanal catches only occurring in recent years (2000 onwards). Industrial fishing is entirely executed by foreign vessels, this catch is considerably variable throughout the years and ceases entirely in 2006. The implementation of the world’s largest marine reserve surrounding the offshore waters of Pitcairn Island has been specifically designed not to affect the rates of subsistence and artisanal fishing conducted by the resident population. Although there is no industrial fishing in the Pitcairn EEZ at present, climate change is predicted to influence the routes of migrating commercially-targeted species, potentially altering fishing effort levels and shift target fishing zones. Implementation of MPAs such as the Pitcairn Island Marine Reserve protect large oceanic areas from risk of future industrial exploitation, whilst protecting near-shore reef and deep-water zones, maintaining domestic coastal fisheries vital for local communities.

The Marine Fisheries in Bulgaria's Exclusive Economic Zone, 1950–2013

The aim of this study is to reconstruct the total historic catch of Bulgarian marine fisheries in their Exclusive Economic Zone for the time period 1950-2013, including unreported landings, discards, recreational and subsistence catches from the ecosystem. The landings data officially reported by Bulgaria to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for the Mediterranean and Black Seas (FAO Area 37) were revised in line with all available information. The reconstructed total catch for 1950-2013 was 1.7 times the (adjusted) baseline data reported by Bulgaria to FAO and 1.5 times the unadjusted data as reported by FAO. This study revealed major deficiencies which exist in the officially reported Bulgarian catch data, foremost being the large amount of unreported industrial catches, especially for the last two decades. Furthermore, the exclusion of some fisheries sectors, notably the absence of data on the subsistence and recreational fisheries in reported data are also noteworthy.

ANALYSIS OF MARINE CATCHES OFF THE STATE OF SERGIPE (1950-2010)

O estado de Sergipe não dispõe de uma versão eletrônica oficial do banco de dados de estatística de captura disponível em boletins nacionais impressos. Assim, o objetivo desse trabalho foi atualizar a parte referente ao estado de Sergipe de um banco de dados nacional eletrônico reconstruído, a fim de obter uma série histórica para 1950-2010, analisando a composição da captura com maior resolução taxonômica e estimando componentes ausentes da pesca. As capturas totais reconstruídas foram sempre mais elevadas do que as originais e indicaram um aumento nas capturas de 1950 a 1979. Nas décadas de 1980 and 1990, foi observada uma estabilização nas capturas, e uma queda de 2005 a 2010. As capturas foram extraídas quase exclusivamente pela frota artesanal. A melhor resolução taxonômica permitiu a identificação das seguintes espécies com as de maiores capturas em 2010 : Xiphopenaeus kroyeri, Mugil curema, Ucides cordatus, Goniopsis cruentata e Macrodon ancylodon . As capturas para essas espécies representaram cerca de 50% do total extraído em Sergipe em 2010. Capturas recreativas foram estimadas em 16 t em 2010, e descartes anuais em 818 t nas décadas de 1980 e 1990. Capturas ornamentais e de subsistência não foram estimadas. Nossa análise indicou que perdas taxonômicas foram observadas em duas etapas: quando dados locais são incorporados em um banco nacional e posteriormente, de um banco nacional para um internacional.

Rapid Lateral Extraction of Otoliths that Maintains the Integrity of Fish Product to Improve Access to Catches and Reduce Potential Sampling Biases

The capacity to sample otoliths of fish from commercial, recreational, artisanal or subsistence catches can be constrained if the dissection process results in alterations to their external appearance and thus reduces its value and/or shelf life. There can also be significant biases incorporated into the collection of otolith samples if access is only granted relative to the size of the fish (i.e. if smaller fish are sold whole). To reduce such limitations, we herein describe a rapid and simple method of lateral otolith extraction that maintains the integrity of the fish product, and thus reduces potential biases in sample collection for age structure data. Representative sampling is an important consideration for the collection of age structure data when it is intended to be used in fisheries stock assessments.

Conched Out: Total Reconstructed Fisheries Catches for the Turks and Caicos Islands Uncover Unsustainable Resource Usage

The Turks and Caicos Islands’ total marine fisheries catches were estimated for 1950-2012 using a catch reconstruction approach, estimating all removals, including reported catch destined for export, and unreported domestic artisanal and subsistence catches. Total reconstructed catch for the period is approximately 2.8 times that reported by Turks and Caicos to the FAO, and 86% higher than the export-adjusted national reported baseline. The pattern of total catches (strong decline to 1970, followed by gradual increase) differs distinctly from that shown by data reported to FAO. Reported landings show a steady increase from less than 1,000 t∙year-1 in the 1950s to around 6,000 t∙year-1 in the 2000s. In contrast, the total reconstructed catches suggest declines in total catches from around 20,000 t in 1950 to a low of about 5,000 t in 1970, before gradual increases to about 12 500 t·year-1 in the late 2000s. Major discrepancies between reported and reconstructed data are under-reported artisanal catches in the early decades (accounting for 86% of total catches), and the absence of subsistence catches (14% of total catches) in reported data. Queen conch (Strombus gigas) and Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) dominate reconstructed catches. No discards were estimated as fishing has been highly selective, carried out by hand collection (conch), trap or hook (lobster), or hook and line (finfish). New data published here from local seafood consumption surveys demonstrates that the total local consumption of conch equates to almost the entire total allowable catch, before exported amounts are even factored. Policy-makers in the Turks and Caicos need to act if the sustainability of the fisheries stock and fishing industry is to be ensured.

A catch history for Atlantic walruses (<i>Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus</i>) in the eastern Canadian Arctic

Knowledge of changes in abundance of Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) in Canada is important for assessing their current population status. This catch history collates available data and assesses their value for modelling historical populations to inform population recovery and management. Pre-historical (archaeological), historical (e.g., Hudson Bay Company journals) and modern catch records are reviewed over time by data source (whaler, land-based commercial, subsistence etc.) and biological population or management stock.Direct counts of walruses landed as well as estimates based on hunt products (e.g., hides, ivory) or descriptors (e.g., Peterhead boatloads) support a minimum landed catch of over 41,300 walruses in the eastern Canadian Arctic between 1820 and 2010. Little is known of Inuit catches prior to 1928, despite the importance of walruses to many Inuit groups for subsistence. Commercial hunting from the late 1500s to late 1700s extirpated the Atlantic walrus from Quebec and the Atlantic Provinces, but there was no commercial hunt for the species in the Canadian Arctic until ca. 1885. As the availability of bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) declined, whalers increasingly turned to hunting other species, including walruses. Modest numbers (max. 278/yr) were taken from the High Arctic population in the mid-1880s and large catches (up to 1400/yr) were often taken from the Central Arctic population from 1899 -1911, while the Foxe Basin stock (Central Arctic population) and Low Arctic population were largely ignored by commercial hunters. Land-based traders (ca. 1895-1928) continued the commercial hunt until regulatory changes in 1928 reserved walruses for Inuit use. Since 1950, reported walrus catches have been declining despite a steady increase in the Inuit population. Effort data are needed to assess whether lower catches stem from declining hunter effort or decreased walrus abundance. The recent take of walruses by sport hunting has been small (n=141, 1995-2010), sporadic and local.These landed catch estimates indicate the minimum numbers of walruses removed but do not account for under-reporting or lost animals that were killed but were not secured. Unreported and lost animals may represent a significant fraction of the total removals and must be considered in any modelling exercise. The sources, quality and completeness of the catch data vary widely over time and space and between the different hunt types. This variability confounds interpretation and contributes to the uncertainty that needs to be incorporated into any modelling. The data on Inuit subsistence catches before ca. 1928 are particularly fragmentary and uncertain.

The total economic value of small-scale fisheries with a characterization of post-landing trends: An application in Madagascar with global relevance

Small-scale fisheries make key contributions to food security, sustainable livelihoods and poverty reduction, yet to date the economic value of small-scale fisheries has been poorly quantified. In this study, we take a novel approach by characterizing post-landing trends of small-scale fisheries resources and estimating their total economic value, including both commercial and subsistence values, in a remote rural region in Madagascar. We construct annual landings and characterize gear and habitat use, post-landing trends, fishing revenue, total market value, costs and net income, profitability, employment and dependence on small-scale fisheries. Our results show that the small-scale fisheries sector employs 87% of the adult population, generates an average of 82% of all household income, and provides the sole protein source in 99% of all household meals with protein. In 2010 an estimated 5524metric tons (t) of fish and invertebrates were extracted annually by small-scale fishers in the region, primarily from coral reef ecosystems, of which 83% was sold commercially, generating fishing revenues of nearly $6.0 million (PPP, 2010). When accounting for subsistence catch, total annual landings had an estimated value of $6.9 million (PPP, 2010). Our results demonstrate the importance of small-scale fisheries for food security, livelihoods, and wealth generation for coastal communities, and highlight the need for long-term management strategies that aim to enhance their ecological and economic sustainability. Our findings should catalyze national and regional policy makers to re-examine existing fisheries policies that neglect this sector, and spur researchers to better quantify small-scale fisheries globally.

From bonito to anchovy: a reconstruction of Turkey’s marine fisheries catches (1950-2010)

Turkey’s marine fisheries catches were estimated for the 1950-2010 time period using a reconstruction approach, which estimated all fisheries removals, including unreported landings, recreational landings and discards. We added these estimates to the ‘official’ data, as reported in TURKSTAT, which are also available from the United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The total reconstructed catch for the 1950-2010 time period (inclusive of the reported data) is approximately 32 million t, or 74% more than the 18.4 million t of reported data. This added approximately 13.6 million t to the reported data, consisting of 6.9 million t of unreported landings, 2.6 million t of discards, 2.4 million t of recreational catches, and 1.7 million t of subsistence catches. In 2010, total reported marine landings for Turkey were 445,680 t and the total reconstructed catch was 763,760 t, or 73% more than the reported data. The main unreported taxon by tonnage was European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) due to its sheer high proportion of catch. The major reasons for underreporting include a general distrust fishers have towards the taxing system combined with inefficient fisheries monitoring and surveillance capabilities. Accounting for all fisheries components is crucial in understanding the development of fisheries resources, improving management, and reducing threats to the domestic food security of Turkey.

Quantifying changes in the subsistence reef fishery of indigenous communities in Torres Strait, Australia

Catch levels and fishing practices for the traditional subsistence reef fishery in Torres Strait, Australia, have likely changed since the 1980s. Islanders now have greater access to motorised boats and modern fishing gears. This allows them to travel further, access more fishing grounds and improve catch rates. The aim of this study was to quantify changes in the fishery over a period of 15 years (1991/1992–2005/2006). Catch information collected in 2005/2006 allowed a comparison of subsistence fish catch and yields with estimates of these variables made from data collected in the 1990s. In 2005/2006, mean annual subsistence catch from Darnley, Yorke and Murray Islands were 71mt (SE=21), 55mt (SE=18) and 43mt (SE=15), respectively. This represents annual reef fish yields of 1.97, 2.96 and 3.49mtkm−2y−1, respectively, or per capita yields of 248, 206 and 92kgperson−1y−1, respectively. These levels of subsistence catch were up to 6 times higher than those estimated from data collected at the same islands in 1991/1992 and 1995/1996. Estimated yields were comparable with those considered sustainable for other reef fisheries in the Pacific region. In contrast to other studied subsistence fisheries, higher levels of modernisation of fishing activities corresponded to higher fish yields. These increases are likely a consequence of the shift in the nature of the traditional subsistence activities to include the relatively recent practice of sending fish from the islands to family members in other locations. If catch levels continue to increase in the future, it will be important to estimate more reliably sustainable yields for the fishery, which would allow more informed management decisions.

Complexity of applying minimum legal sizes (MLS) of retention in an indigenous coral reef fishery

Abstract Retaining coral reef fish for subsistence during commercial fishing is a common practice for indigenous fishers in the Torres Strait, Australia, despite being inconsistent with legislation. Fisher access point surveys were completed between 2004 and 2006 on three islands in Torres Strait to characterise this subsistence practice and assess the level to which it undermines current minimum legal fish sizes. Approximately 15% of the annual total catch was retained for subsistence during commercial fishing. Notably, subsistence catch of the most commercially valuable species almost entirely comprised individuals smaller than the minimum legal sizes. The higher proportions of undersized individuals of valuable species retained during commercial fishing on some of the islands were most likely associated with an increase in professionalism of the fishers. These results demonstrate how the intended outcomes from a management strategy can be undermined when the specific operational conditions of the fishery are not considered. Successful implementation of management arrangements in indigenous communities ultimately depends on the sociocultural conditions of the communities and their understanding and adherence to the rules. A productive way forward for the management of this fishery is greater engagement of indigenous communities and managers in co‐management arrangements.

Fish as the “bank in the water” – Evidence from chronic-poor communities in Congo

Small-scale fisheries in developing countries are often perceived as being a low-productivity and backward informal sector. As a result they are rarely considered in poverty reduction programmes and rural development planning. In this paper, we investigate the dual role of fish as a food and cash crop through data collected in river fisheries in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Fishing in this very remote rural region of DRC is operated both by men and women, as part of a household multiple activity livelihood strategy. The data shows that poor households rely heavily on fishing for their supply of protein-rich food, in particular through women’s subsistence catches. Fishing also appears to be the main source of cash-income for the majority of households, including local farmers. Based on these findings and a review of the literature, the paper argues that small-scale fisheries can play a fundamental role in local economies, especially in remote rural areas where they strengthen significantly the livelihoods of people through their role in both food security and cash-income generation.