Subsidiary Hypothesis Research Articles

Trivial and Important Criteria for Social Categorization in the Minimal Group Paradigm

Abstract The study examined how the importance of a criterion for social categorization can vary with the social context. The main hypothesis was that there would be no difference between the influence of two criteria of differing real-world importance when each is used independently as the only criterion for social categorization in the same minimal group setting. The subsidiary hypothesis was that social categorization on both a trivial and an important basis would lead to positive in-group bias. The subjects were 66 schoolboys. Social categorization was on the basis of either a minimal criterion or subjects' school house-system. Both the main and the subsidiary hypotheses were confirmed.

The Split Between the Established and the Non‐established Left in Germany*

ABSTRACTThe focus is on the problem of dimensionality of left–right evaluations in mass publics. Starting from findings of earlier research showing that the left–right dichotomy can be interpreted in terms of a partisan and a value/issue component, it is argued here that the latter component has to be further differentiated into a more general value preference and a pro‐/anti‐establishment component. A subsidiary hypothesis maintains that the establishment component shows substantial life‐cycle effects. This differentiation thus can help to clarify conceptually the aging–conservatism thesis. The analysis reveals an age‐specific split on the meaning of Left and Right. While older cohorts interpret these terms predominantly via the traditional partisan frame of reference, in younger cohorts the value‐ and anti‐establishment components overwhelmingly explain left–right evaluations. These effects are strongest in the group of university‐educated younger‐age cohorts. This is a reversal of the traditional alignments of the better educated; in Germany they have had a position closer to the Right. Education thus has become the basis of a new left–right conflict. In addition, in all the younger cohorts, the value components are increasingly detached from the traditional partisan frame. The ‘floating’ New Left has distanced itself from the established Left–Right camps to focus upon the new German party, the Greens.

Natural selection in syntax: Notes on adaptive variation and change in vernacular and literary grammar

Syntactic and morphological usages in conversational and formal written English show a number of differences, both in what is accepted and what is preferred or most frequent. The central argument is that some of these variations can be explained in terms of the Darwinian concept of natural selection, in which the forms better suited to particular conditions survive or are favoured in those conditions. A subsidiary hypothesis is that English vernacular (conversational) grammar represents an older and more natural tradition, and that certain levels, and constraints generally considered to be characteristic of English grammar, e.g. the sentence level, and elements of relative clause formation, are innovations belonging to a literacy-based form of English.

THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT POSITION AND SCORING METHOD ON ESSAY SCORING

In a study of the context problem in essay scoring, Hales and Tokar (1975) found that essays of average quality were rated significantly higher when preceded by a block of five poor quality essays then when preceded by a block of five good quality essays. This effect persisted over two consecutively placed average-quality essays though it was noted' that the magnitude of the context effect was less for the second criterion essay than for the first (with a corresponding lower significance value, p < .05 compared to p < .001). This observation gave rise to the main hypothesis guiding the present study. It was hypothesized that context effects would depend on the positioning of the context block within the series of essays to be scored. The context effect would be strong if the block of context essays was encountered at the very beginning of the essay series as in the Hales and Tokar study. If, however, the block of context essays came relatively late in the essay series, at a point where markers had already scored a number of essays of varied quality, then the context effect would be greatly reduced if not eliminated completely. In consequence, there should be an interaction between context position and context quality. The design of this study also made possible examination of the subsidiary hypothesis that holistic scoring procedures would be more vulnerable to context effects than analytic scoring procedures. In the analytic method, markers are provided with guidelines regarding weights to be awarded for particular essay features, for example, writing style, originality of ideas, grammar, mechanics of written expression, etc. They are required to make independent judgments of these aspects, and it might be expected that the concentrated effort needed to make these judgments on each essay would serve to attenuate effects from extraneous sources. The situation appears to be quite different in holistic scoring methods where a single global judgment is made. Here there may be less of the directed effort demanded by analytic procedures and this could allow the context essays read earlier to have more influence. In consequence, there should be an interaction between context quality and scoring method.

Veneziano Duality inSU(3)-Symmetric Meson-Baryon Scattering

An SU(3) symmetric Veneziano model for pseudoscalar meson-baryon scattering is con­ structed. The model incorporates the full content of the exchange degeneracy pattern of baryon spectrum. A hypothesis is made that the leading trajectories bootstrap themselves as long as it is consistent with the crossing relation, no ghosts on the leading trajectories and certain physical requirements. If we further adopt a subsidiary hypothesis on the SU (3) structures of the daughter states, the A amplitude (we use CGLN's notation) is completely determined to within a scale factor. Possible SU (3) splitting of the trajectories is considered. Theoretical prediction for threshold values of A amplitudes agrees quantitatively with ex­ perimental values (which are given in terms of the s-wave and p-wave scattering lengths) for rrN and KN scattering. It is shown that in the limit of quantized intercepts, the present model satisfies Adler's condition approximately. When applied to high-energy forward scat­ tering, the model predicts the t-dependence of the F/ D ratios of vector and tensor meson couplings. The theoretical value of the A amplitude associated with the nonstrange vector and tensor Regge pole exchange agrees with the empirical value within a factor of two. § I. Introduction In vanous dynamical schemes ever proposed to describe hadron scattering processes, exchanges play a primary role. In the early days, particle exchanges in the s-, t- and u-channels were treated separately and added up to give the whole amplitude. The results, however, are sensitive to the choice of types of couplings and the way of extrapolating resonance formula to the off-mass shell region. Even if the particle exchange is Reggeized, the t-dependence of residue functions remains undetermined. Furthermore, it has become evident from the study of finite energy sum rules applied to pion-nucleon scattering that the extrapolation of Regge pole terms down to the intermediate energy region gives the average of the contributions of the direct channel resonances. 1 ),Z) The problem of double counting would occur m general if one simply sums resonance terms in all three channels. Veneziano has proposed a new model as a solution to this problem. 3 ) The

Error-correcting codes and genetics

The conservation of genetic information through the ages can not be explained unless one assumes the existence of genomic error-correcting codes, our main hypothesis. Shielding by phenotypic membranes does not protect the genomes against radiations and their own quantum indeterminism. The cumulated errors then make the genomic memory ephemeral at the time scale of geology. Only means intrinsic to the genome itself, taking the form of error-correcting codes, can ensure the genome permanency. According to information theory, they can achieve reliable communication over unreliable channels, so paradoxical it may look, provided some conditions are met. The experience of communication engineers witnesses their high efficiency. As a subsidiary hypothesis, we assume moreover they take the form of `nested codes', i.e., that several codes are combined into a layered structure which results in an unequal protection: the older and more fundamental parts of the genomic information are better protected than more recent ones. Looking for how nature implements error-correcting codes, we are led to assume that they rely on the many physical, steric, chemical and linguistic constraints to which the DNA molecule and the proteins for which they code are subjected. Taking account of these constraints enables to regenerate the genome provided the number of accumulated errors remains less than the correcting ability of the code, i.e., after a short enough time. Based on these hypotheses, fundamental results of information theory explain basic features of the living world, especially that life proceeds by successive generations, the discreteness of species and their hierarchical taxonomy, as well as the trend of evolution towards complexity. Other consequences are that evolution proceeds by jumps and that the genomic message originates in random regeneration errors. That basic results of information theory and error--correcting codes explain biological facts left unexplained by today's biology confirms the necessity of our hypotheses. The direct experimental identification of genomic error-correcting codes and regeneration means still lacks, however, but it would obviously require the activecollaboration of practicing geneticists.

El reverso de las corporaciones hobbesianas: responsabilidad política y conflicto regular

El propósito del presente trabajo consiste en explicar por qué Hobbes adopta una perspectiva corporativista para dar cuenta de la dinámica social y política que opera al interior del Leviatán. En concreto, intentaremos demostrar cómo el ordenamiento de la sociedad política en sistemas conducidos por representantes le permite a Hobbes establecer ciertas pautas en el desenvolvimiento de los conflictos públicos, fundamentalmente, la asignación de responsabilidades. A su vez, como hipótesis subsidiaria, argüiremos que el rol de la teoría de la representación es central en la medida en que Hobbes no pretende eliminar la disputa política como tal, sino tan sólo deshacerse de su modalidad irregular.

Error-correcting codes and genetics

The conservation of genetic information through the ages can not be explained unless one assumes the existence of genomic error-correcting codes, our main hypothesis. Shielding by phenotypic membranes does not protect the genomes against radiations and their own quantum indeterminism. The cumulated errors then make the genomic memory ephemeral at the time scale of geology. Only means intrinsic to the genome itself, taking the form of error-correcting codes, can ensure the genome permanency. According to information theory, they can achieve reliable communication over unreliable channels, so paradoxical it may look, provided some conditions are met. The experience of communication engineers witnesses their high efficiency. As a subsidiary hypothesis, we assume moreover they take the form of `nested codes', i.e., that several codes are combined into a layered structure which results in an unequal protection: the older and more fundamental parts of the genomic information are better protected than more recent ones. Looking for how nature implements error-correcting codes, we are led to assume that they rely on the many physical, steric, chemical and linguistic constraints to which the DNA molecule and the proteins for which they code are subjected. Taking account of these constraints enables to regenerate the genome provided the number of accumulated errors remains less than the correcting ability of the code, i.e., after a short enough time. Based on these hypotheses, fundamental results of information theory explain basic features of the living world, especially that life proceeds by successive generations, the discreteness of species and their hierarchical taxonomy, as well as the trend of evolution towards complexity. Other consequences are that evolution proceeds by jumps and that the genomic message originates in random regeneration errors. That basic results of information theory and error--correcting codes explain biological facts left unexplained by today's biology confirms the necessity of our hypotheses. The direct experimental identification of genomic error-correcting codes and regeneration means still lacks, however, but it would obviously require the activecollaboration of practicing geneticists.

Teaching approach and the development of divergent thinking abilities in primary schools.

Summary. This research was designed to evaluate the effects of differing teaching approaches on divergent thinking abilities, the hypothesis being that informal, progressive teaching would promote these abilities more than formal, more subject‐centred teaching. Two‐hundred‐and‐eleven children, 11 to 12 years old, of all ability levels, were tested, half coming from ‘Formal’ and half from ‘Informal’ primary schools which were matched for verbal reasoning quotient (VRQ) and socioeconomic background. The results showed that pupils from the Informal schools were significantly superior in divergent thinking abilities. The difference in means often reached the .01 level of significance and was in no case in the unpredicted direction. The hypothesis was thus confirmed.A subsidiary hypothesis—that the correlation between VRQ and divergent thinking abilities would decrease as the VRQ of each sub‐group rose—was also supported. As expected, these correlation values were generally higher in the Informal schools.

THE PERMANENT INCOME‐WEALTH APPROACH TO THE DEMAND FOR MONEY: ANALYTICAL AND EMPIRICAL ASPECTS*

THIS INVESTIGATION is a critical examination of the permanent income-wealth approach to the demand for money. The study attempts to explore the theoretical models on which such an approach is based, examine the available empirical evidence regarding the validity of the hypotheses, and adduce additional evidence concerning the role played by permanent income and wealth in demand functions for money. Several alternative models are developed in the thesis. Some relatively unrecognized problems concerning the nature of available evidence are treated. Disaggregated quarterly data are used to explore how the hypotheses work on a short-run sectoral basis. Analytically, it is shown that the ideas involved may be treated as special cases within the framework of a Keynesian model. The concepts, in this case, are reflected as the hypothesis that the demand for current output and the demand for money are relatively insensitive to fluctuations in current income. As a subsidiary hypothesis, the permanent income-wealth hypothesis treats the demand for cash as being relatively insensitive to changes in yields on financial assets. In this situation, the conclusion emerges that permanent income-wealth hypotheses imply a heightened importance of monetary versus nonmonetary factors. That is, the change in equilibrium income with respect to changes in the money stock is raised relative to the change in equilibrium income relative to changes in autonomous flows. Hypotheses in a permanent income-wealth approach alternatively may be developed on aggregating a macroeconomic model in which economic units choose optimal portfolios determined by tastes for income and risk. In this context, the hypotheses may be treated as propositions that the expected yields on capital change by relatively small amounts in response to changes in current income. As before, the conclusion emerges that a permanent income-wealth analysis implies a greater relative importance of changes in monetary rather than nonmonetary factors in altering equilibrium income. In examining available empirical work concerning the various approaches, it becomes clear that many of the studies, particularly the earlier studies, are inadequate, if not misleading. The reasons for this are due to problems of autocorrelation, implicit correlation, or specification and estimation of functions in a fashion that conceals such difficulties. When new evidence is adduced in terms of quarterly data for the household and corporate sectors from 1952-63, it appears that, at least in the short run, neither income nor wealth act as important determinants of money holdings. Yields on assets and lagged stock variables seem to be the key variables in explaining cash balances. Moreover, when the lagged stock variable is dropped in the estimates, serial correlation does not appear in residuals so that the distributed lag model does not merely conceal the presence of correlated residuals. The consumer sector seems to be most responsive to fluctuations in yields on mortgages, whereas the corporate nonfinancial sector is sensitive to changes in yields on Treasury bills and on prime commercial paper. In general, a closer fit of the regression estimates is obtained for the consumer data than for the data on nonfinancial corporations. Wide differences in variables and closeness of fit in regression estimates seem to indicate that the disaggregated approach in a study of the demand for money is highly useful.

Rapid Changes in Transpiration in Plants

IN the recent discussion in Nature under this heading1–3, Rufelt1,3 has adopted Ivanoff's4 hypothesis that the transient increase in transpiration rate observed when a leaf is detached in air is caused “by a sudden release of the water stress in the conducting elements, which means that it is caused by an increase in the water supply to the leaf”1. He has further supposed that the increase in transpiration obtained after bathing the roots of intact plants with mannitol solution5, or 1 M sodium chloride1, is also due to the release of water stress in the plant, making the subsidiary hypothesis that the mannitol or sodium chloride causes an increase in the water permeability of the roots1. He concludes that this last effect is peculiar to the roots1, and since he writes of “the permeability barrier in the root”3 he must postulate that the transpiration stream here passes through the cells, though in the whole of the rest of the plant he supposes it to move in the cell walls only, except when it is in the xylem. He would appear to have obtained no data for the behaviour of the stomata in his experiments; his discussion of the supposed absence of ‘mechanical effects’ and the different permeabilities of guard cells and epidermal cells therefore seems too great an extrapolation from his results—transpiration rate can only be taken as a measure of stomatal diffusive conductance when there is a constant potential difference across the stomata.

Internalization Ratio, Accuracy, and Variability of Judgments of the Vertical

In an unpublished study (which yielded equivocal results) investigating the relationship between auditory stimulation and perception of the vertical, a subsidiary hypothesis was made pertinent to the relationship between Welsh's (1956) MMPI-derived Internalization Ratio (IR) and the accuracy and variability of judgments of the vertical. Following Fine's (1961, 1963) usage of the IR, Ss scoring .88 or below on the IR (extraverts) were expected to be less accurate and more variable in their judgments of true vertical than Ss scoring above .88 (intermediates and introverts). The hypothesis was derived from the work of Eysenck and others (summarized in Eysenck, 1961) which indicates that extraverts are more dependent than introverts upon external cues when making judgments, are more variable in their responses than introverts, and prefer speed to accuracy when performing specific tasks. Since external cues were minimal in the present study, it was felt that differences in accuracy and variability of judgments between introverts and extraverts would be maximized. The data1 presented here represent only the control trials (those with no auditory stimulation) of the experiment proper. A total of 32 judgments of the vertical (16 with the rod starting from 85 to the left of true vertical and 16 starting from 85 to the right) were obtained for each of the 32 Ss. Two measures were calculated for each S; the mean deviation from true vertical (regardless of the direction of the deviation) over 32 trials and the standard deviation of the mean. Medians for each of the two distributions of scores thus obtained were determined and median tests calculated. Of the 18 extraverts, 12 were above the median in their deviations from true vertical, whereas only 4 01 the 14 introverts and intermediates had deviations above the median. The median test yielded a x%f 3.17 (df = 1) which is statistically significant (P < .O5, 1-tail). With regard to variability, 13 of the 18 extraverts had standard deviations above the median, whereas only 3 of the 14 intermediates and introverts were above the median. The median test yielded a x' of 6.22 (df = 1) which is significant (P < .01, I-tail). The data support the hypothesis that there is a relationship between the IR and the accuracy and variability of judgments of the vertical.

The influence of the poll gene on certain production characters of Merino sheep

The results of a series of matings of Merino sheep of the form heterozygous poll rams (Pp) x knobbed ewes (pp), are presented. The phenotypic ratio poll progeny : horned progeny was 75:73 for rams and 81:94 for ewes. These were not significantly different from the expected 1:1 ratio. The 75 Pp rams had horn growth varying in length from 1/2 in. to 13 in. One known poll ram phenotype, depressions at the horn sites, was not seen. Comparisons were made within sires of Pp and pp progeny for a series of production measurements. Pp rams cut 4.09 per cent. more clean fleece weight than pp rams, while Pp ewes cut 4.47 per cent. less than pp ewes. This genotype-sex interaction was further examined by comparing sexes for the ratio of positive to negative within-sire differences. There were highly significant chi-square values for greasy fleece weight, clean fleece weight, and body weight. The differences in clean fleece weight were largely accounted for by differences in body weight and staple length. Fold score differences were negligible. The hypothesis suggested as an explanation for these results is that the Merino poll gene P is associated with a small deleterious effect when heterozygous. The effect is apparent only in ewes where the specific effect is the removal of small bony knobs. A subsidiary hypothesis is that in rams the deleterious effect of P is over-compensated by the nutritive benefits derived from the absence of the large ram horns. The practical importance of these findings is discussed.

Subsidiary hypothesis to the electro-chemical theory of Sir H. Davy

Subsidiary hypothesis to the electro-chemical theory of Sir H. Davy