Subsequent Energy Intake Research Articles

Acute effects of protein composition and fibre enrichment of yogurt consumed as snacks on appetite sensations and subsequent ad libitum energy intake in healthy men.

The objective of the study was to assess the impact of protein composition and/or fibre enrichment of yogurt on appetite sensations and subsequent energy intake. In this double-blind crossover study, 20 healthy men (aged 32.4 ± 9.1 years) were submitted to 5 randomized testing sessions, during which they had to consume 5 isocaloric and isonproteinemic yogurt snacks (120-g servings, ∼230 kJ, ∼4.5 g protein) differing by their casein-to-whey protein ratio (C:W) or dietary fibre content: (i) control C:W = 2.8:1; (ii) high whey (HW) C:W = 1.5:1, and fibre-enriched formulations using control; (iii) 2.4 g of inulin; (iv) 1.9 g of inulin and 0.5 g of β-glucan (+IN-βG); and (v) 0.5 g of β-glucan. Appetite sensations were assessed using 150-mm visual analog scales. Plasma variables (glucose, insulin, ghrelin) were measured at 30-min intervals post-yogurt consumption for 2 h. Finally, energy intakes during ad libitum lunches offered 2 h after yogurt snacks were recorded. None of the yogurts impacted appetite sensations. Ad libitum energy intake was significantly different only between HW and control yogurts (-812 kJ; p = 0.03). Regarding post-yogurt plasma variables, a significant difference was found only between ghrelin area under the curve of the +IN-βG and the HW yogurts (-15 510 pmol/L per 120 min, p = 0.04). In conclusion, although appetite sensations were not influenced by variations in yogurts' protein compositions, a reduced energy intake was observed during the ad libitum lunch after the HW yogurt that may be attributable to its lower C:W. Surprisingly, the fibre enrichments studied did not exert effect on appetite sensations and energy intake.

The effects of muffins enriched with sour cherry pomace on acceptability, glycemic response, satiety and energy intake: a randomized crossover trial.

Sour cherry pomace (CP), a by-product obtained during fruit processing, was used to replace wheat flour in a muffin formula. The influence of the most sensory acceptable muffins on glycemic response, appetite sensation, and energy intake during subsequent meal in a randomized crossover trial was studied. It is acceptable to incorporate up to 30% CP into muffin formulas. With CP-treated muffins glucose responses were significantly lower at 30, 45, and 60 min intervals, and the incremental peak glucose was 0.40 and 0.60 mmol L(-1) lower than for plain muffins (PM). The CP-enriched muffins showed an incremental area under the blood glucose response curve values lower than that of PM. 20% CP and 30% CP resulted in improved satiety and induced a lower energy intake at a test meal ingested 3 h later (-13.7%; -15.1%) as compared to PM, respectively. CP may be a good functional ingredient for bakery products that assists in managing glucose levels, satiety, and subsequent energy intake in healthy individuals. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Food Liking Enhances the Plasma Response of 2-Arachidonoylglycerol and of Pancreatic Polypeptide upon Modified Sham Feeding in Humans1–3

Background: Food palatability increases food intake and may lead to overeating. The mechanisms behind this observation are still largely unknown.Objectives: The aims of this study were the following: 1) to elucidate the plasma responses of endocannabinoids, N-acylethanolamines, and gastrointestinal peptides to a palatable (sweet), unpalatable (bitter), and sensory-acceptable (tasteless control) food, and 2) to verify whether some of these bioactive compounds can serve as plasma biomarkers of food liking in humans.Methods: Three puddings providing 60 kcal (35% from proteins, 62% from carbohydrates, and 3% from fats) but with different taste were developed. Twenty healthy subjects (11 women and 9 men; mean age 28 y and BMI 22.7 kg/m2), selected because they liked the puddings in the order sweet > control > bitter, participated in a randomized crossover study based on a modified sham feeding (MSF) protocol. Blood samples at baseline and every 5 min up to 20 min after the MSF were analyzed for gastrointestinal peptides, endocannabinoids, and N-acylethanolamines. Thirty minutes after the MSF, energy intake at an ad libitum breakfast was measured.Results: After the MSF, no response was observed in 7 of 9 gastrointestinal peptides measured. The plasma ghrelin concentration at 20 min after the sweet and bitter puddings was 25% lower than after the control pudding (P = 0.04), and the pancreatic polypeptide response after the sweet pudding was 23% greater than after the bitter pudding (P = 0.02). The plasma response of 2-arachidonoylglycerol after the sweet pudding was 37% and 15% higher than after the bitter (P < 0.001) and control (P = 0.03) puddings, respectively. Trends for greater responses of anandamide (P = 0.06), linoleoylethanolamide (P = 0.07), palmitoylethanolamide (P = 0.06), and oleoylethanolamide (P = 0.09) were found after the sweet pudding than after the bitter pudding. No differences in subsequent energy intake were recorded.Conclusions: The data demonstrated that food palatability influenced some plasma endocannabinoid and N-acylethanolamine concentrations during the cephalic phase response and indicated that 2-arachidonoylglycerol and pancreatic polypeptide can be used as biomarkers of food liking in humans.

Timing of moderate-to-vigorous exercise and its impact on subsequent energy intake in young males

Exercise can suppress appetite and energy intake but the impact of the timing of exercise remains unknown. Knowing that orexigenic hormone levels decrease during exercise but rapidly increase afterward, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether energy intake is increasingly reduced when exercise immediately precedes a meal compared to when a delay occurs between the exercise and the meal. Non-obese boys (15-20 years old; N=12) were individually evaluated while performing two randomly assigned experimental visits: 1) a 30-min exercise session of moderate-to-vigorous intensity followed immediately by an ad libitum buffet at 12 PM and 2), an identical session followed by a 135-min waiting period and an ad libitum buffet-type meal at 12 PM. In both conditions, a snack in the afternoon and a second ad libitum buffet-type meal at 5 PM were served. Findings showed that hunger ratings were similar under both conditions. The exercise session immediately prior to the meal compared with the condition with a >2h delay led to reduction of 11% and 23% in overall and lipid energy intakes at lunch, respectively (P-values>0.05). No significant differences were found in the energy intakes from the afternoon snack and dinner. Apart from lipids at lunch, the proportions of energy from the various macronutrients at each meal were similar. This study reveals that being physically active before a meal plays a role in acute energy intake reduction when a shorter delay is present between exercise and a meal. In addition, the absence of compensation over several hours is noteworthy.

Effects of Interrupting Children's Sedentary Behaviors With Activity on Metabolic Function: A Randomized Trial.

Limited data suggest that interrupting sedentary behaviors with activity improves metabolic parameters in adults. We tested whether interrupting sitting with short, moderate-intensity walking bouts improved glucose tolerance in children. Participants underwent two experimental conditions in random order on different days: continuous sitting for 3 hours or sitting interrupted by walking (3 min of moderate-intensity walking every 30 min). Insulin, C-peptide, glucose, and free fatty acids were measured every 30 minutes for 3 hours during an oral glucose tolerance test. Area under the curve (AUC) was calculated from hormone and substrate measurements. Children were given a buffet meal after each condition. The study was conducted at the National Institutes of Health Hatfield Clinical Research Center. Twenty-eight normal-weight 7-11 year olds participated. Patterns of substrate/hormone secretion and AUC, as well as energy intake, were examined by experimental condition. Interrupting sitting resulted in a 32% lower insulin AUC (P < .001), 17% lower C-peptide AUC (P < .001), and 7% lower glucose AUC (P = .018) vs continuous sitting. Mixed model results indicated that insulin (P = .036) and free fatty acid concentrations (P = .009) were significantly lower in the interrupted vs the continuous sitting condition. Lunchtime buffet meal energy intake did not significantly differ between the conditions (975 ± 387 vs 963 ± 309 kcal; P = .85). Interrupting sedentary time with brief moderate-intensity walking improved short-term metabolic function in non-overweight children without increasing subsequent energy intake. These findings suggest that interrupting sedentary behavior may be a promising prevention strategy for reducing cardiometabolic risk in children.

Postprandial effects of consuming a staggered meal on gut peptide and glycemic responses in obese women and men

Eating slowly by staggering a meal may reduce energy intake. Our aim was to examine the effect of eating a portion of beans 15min before the rest of the meal, on gastrointestinal (GI) peptides, glucose and insulin concentrations and subsequent energy intake in obese adults. This was a randomised crossover design study with 28 obese subjects. Participants consumed a standardised breakfast on test days followed by test meals: (1) control meal containing 86g (0.5 cup) of beans, and (2) staggered meal in which 86g (0.5 cup) of beans were consumed 15min before the rest of the meal. Blood obtained prior to and at 30, 60, and 120min following the meals was analysed for acylated ghrelin, unacylated ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY, oxyntomodulin, glucose and insulin. Feelings of hunger and satiety were assessed using analog visual scales. Energy intake following the test meal was obtained by computer assisted dietary recalls. Mixed model statistical analysis of data showed time effects for unacylated ghrelin, GLP-1, glucose, insulin, hunger and fullness, however, meal effects were not shown for any of the parameters. GLP-1 area under the curve from baseline to 120min (AUC0-120) decreased by 19% (P=0.024) and that of glucose increased by 7% (P=0.046) following the staggered compared to the control bean meal. Energy intake subsequent to the test meals did not differ between treatments. In conclusion, lengthening meal times by staggering eating did not benefit hormonal, metabolic or appetite control in obese individuals.

Effect of extended morning fasting upon ad libitum lunch intake and associated metabolic and hormonal responses in obese adults.

Background/Objectives:Breakfast omission is positively associated with obesity and increased risk of disease. However, little is known about the acute effects of extended morning fasting upon subsequent energy intake and associated metabolic/regulatory factors in obese adults.Subjects/Methods:In a randomised cross-over design, 24 obese men (n=8) and women (n=16) extended their overnight fast by omitting breakfast consumption or ingesting a typical carbohydrate-rich breakfast of 2183±393 kJ (521±94 kcal), before an ad libitum pasta lunch 3 h later. Blood samples were obtained throughout the day until 3 h post lunch and analysed for hormones implicated in appetite regulation, along with metabolic outcomes and subjective appetite measures.Results:Lunch intake was unaffected by extended morning fasting (difference=218 kJ, 95% confidence interval −54 kJ, 490 kJ; P=0.1) resulting in lower total intake in the fasting trial (difference=−1964 kJ, 95% confidence interval −1645 kJ, −2281 kJ; P<0.01). Systemic concentrations of peptide tyrosine–tyrosine and leptin were lower during the afternoon following morning fasting (P⩽0.06). Plasma-acylated ghrelin concentrations were also lower following the ad libitum lunch in the fasting trial (P<0.05) but this effect was not apparent for total ghrelin (P⩾0.1). Serum insulin concentrations were greater throughout the afternoon in the fasting trial (P=0.05), with plasma glucose also greater 1 h after lunch (P<0.01). Extended morning fasting did not result in greater appetite ratings after lunch, with some tendency for lower appetite 3 h post lunch (P=0.09).Conclusions:We demonstrate for the first time that, in obese adults, extended morning fasting does not cause compensatory intake during an ad libitum lunch nor does it increase appetite during the afternoon. Morning fasting reduced satiety hormone responses to a subsequent lunch meal but counterintuitively also reduced concentrations of the appetite-stimulating hormone-acylated ghrelin during the afternoon relative to lunch consumed after breakfast.

Instant Oatmeal Increases Satiety and Reduces Energy Intake Compared to a Ready-to-Eat Oat-Based Breakfast Cereal: A Randomized Crossover Trial

Background: Foods that enhance satiety can help consumers to resist environmental cues to eat and help adherence to calorie restriction. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of 2 oat-based breakfast cereals on appetite, satiety, and food intake.Methods: Forty-eight healthy individuals, 18 years of age or older, were enrolled in a randomized, crossover trial. Subjects consumed isocaloric servings of either oatmeal or an oat-based ready-to-eat breakfast cereal (RTEC) in random order at least a week apart. Visual analogue scales measuring appetite and satiety were completed before breakfast and throughout the morning. Lunch was served 4 hours after breakfast. The physicochemical properties of oat soluble fiber (β-glucan) were determined. Appetite and satiety responses were analyzed by area under the curve. Food intake and β-glucan properties were analyzed using t tests.Results: Oatmeal increased fullness (p = 0.001) and reduced hunger (p = 0.005), desire to eat (p = 0.001), and prospective intake (p = 0.006) more than the RTEC. Energy intake at lunch was lower after eating oatmeal compared to the RTEC (p = 0.012). Oatmeal had higher viscosity (p = 0.03), β-glucan content, molecular weight (p < 0.001), and radius of gyration (p < 0.001) than the RTEC.Conclusions: Oatmeal suppresses appetite, increases satiety, and reduces energy intake compared to the RTEC. The physicochemical properties of β-glucan and sufficient hydration of oats are important factors affecting satiety and subsequent energy intake.

An afternoon snack of berries reduces subsequent energy intake compared to an isoenergetic confectionary snack

Observational studies suggest that increased fruit and vegetable consumption can contribute to weight maintenance and facilitate weight loss when substituted for other energy dense foods. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of berries on acute appetite and energy intake. Twelve unrestrained pre-menopausal women (age 21 ± 2 y; BMI 26.6 ± 2.6 kg m−2; body fat 23 ± 3%) completed a familiarisation trial and two randomised experimental trials. Subjects arrived in the evening (∼5pm) and consumed an isoenergetic snack (65 kcal) of mixed berries (BERRY) or confectionary sweets (CONF). Sixty min later, subjects consumed a homogenous pasta test meal until voluntary satiation, and energy intake was quantified. Subjective appetite (hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective food consumption) was assessed throughout trials, and for 120 min after the test meal. Energy intake was less (P<0.001) after consumption of the BERRY snack (691 ± 146 kcal) than after the CONF snack (824 ± 172 kcal); whilst water consumption was similar (P=0.925). There were no trial (P>0.095) or interaction (P>0.351) effects for any subjective appetite ratings. Time taken to eat the BERRY snack (4.05 ± 1.12 min) was greater (P<0.001) than the CONF snack (0.93 ± 0.33 min). This study demonstrates that substituting an afternoon confectionary snack with mixed berries decreased subsequent energy intake at dinner, but did not affect subjective appetite. This dietary strategy could represent a simple method for reducing daily energy intake and aiding weight management.

Effect of reducing portion size at a compulsory meal on later energy intake, gut hormones, and appetite in overweight adults.

Larger portion sizes (PS) are associated with greater energy intake (EI), but little evidence exists on the appetitive effects of PS reduction. This study investigated the impact of reducing breakfast PS on subsequent EI, postprandial gastrointestinal hormone responses, and appetite ratings. In a randomized crossover design (n = 33 adults; mean BMI 29 kg/m(2) ), a compulsory breakfast was based on 25% of gender-specific estimated daily energy requirements; PS was reduced by 20% and 40%. EI was measured at an ad libitum lunch (240 min) and snack (360 min) and by weighed diet diaries until bed. Blood was sampled until lunch in 20 participants. Appetite ratings were measured using visual analogue scales. EI at lunch (control: 2,930 ± 203; 20% reduction: 2,853 ± 198; 40% reduction: 2,911 ± 179 kJ) and over the whole day except breakfast (control: 7,374 ± 361; 20% reduction: 7,566 ± 468; 40% reduction: 7,413 ± 417 kJ) did not differ. Postprandial PYY, GLP-1, GIP, insulin, and fullness profiles were lower and hunger, desire to eat, and prospective consumption higher following 40% reduction compared to control. Appetite ratings profiles, but not hormone concentrations, were associated with subsequent EI. Smaller portions at breakfast led to reductions in gastrointestinal hormone secretion but did not affect subsequent energy intake, suggesting small reductions in portion size may be a useful strategy to constrain EI.

Carbohydrate-rich breakfast attenuates glycaemic, insulinaemic and ghrelin response to ad libitum lunch relative to morning fasting in lean adults.

Breakfast omission is associated with obesity and CVD/diabetes, but the acute effects of extended morning fasting upon subsequent energy intake and metabolic/hormonal responses have received less attention. In a randomised cross-over design, thirty-five lean men (n 14) and women (n 21) extended their overnight fast or ingested a typical carbohydrate-rich breakfast in quantities relative to RMR (i.e. 1963 (sd 238) kJ), before an ad libitum lunch 3 h later. Blood samples were obtained hourly throughout the day until 3 h post-lunch, with subjective appetite measures assessed. Lunch intake was greater following extended fasting (640 (sd 1042) kJ, P< 0.01) but incompletely compensated for the omitted breakfast, with total intake lower than the breakfast trial (3887 (sd 1326) v. 5213 (sd 1590) kJ, P< 0.001). Systemic concentrations of peptide tyrosine-tyrosine and leptin were greater during the afternoon following breakfast (both P< 0.05) but neither acylated/total ghrelin concentrations were suppressed by the ad libitum lunch in the breakfast trial, remaining greater than the morning fasting trial throughout the afternoon (all P< 0.05). Insulin concentrations were greater during the afternoon in the morning fasting trial (all P< 0.01). There were no differences between trials in subjective appetite during the afternoon. In conclusion, morning fasting caused incomplete energy compensation at an ad libitum lunch. Breakfast increased some anorectic hormones during the afternoon but paradoxically abolished ghrelin suppression by the second meal. Extending morning fasting until lunch altered subsequent metabolic and hormonal responses but without greater appetite during the afternoon. The present study clarifies the impact of acute breakfast omission and adds novel insights into second-meal metabolism.

The effect of a whey protein supplement dose on satiety and food intake in resistance training athletes

Objective: Many athletes perform resistance training and consume dietary protein as a strategy to promote anabolic adaptation. Due to its high satiety value, the regular addition of supplemented dietary protein could plausibly displace other key macronutrients such as carbohydrate in an athlete's diet. This effect will be influenced by the form and dose of protein. Therefore, this study assessed the impact of liquid whey protein dose manipulation on subjective sensations of appetite and food intake in a cohort of athletes. Design: Ten male athletes who performed both resistance and aerobic (endurance) training (21.2 ± 2.3 years; 181.7 ± 5.7 cm and 80.8 ± 6.1 kg) were recruited. In four counter-balanced testing sessions they consumed a manipulated whey protein supplement (20, 40, 60 or 80 g protein) 1 hour after a standardised breakfast. Subsequent energy intake was measured 3 hours after the protein supplement using an ad libitum test meal. Subjective appetite sensations were measured periodically during the test day using visual analogue scales. Results: All conditions resulted in a significant decrease in ratings of hunger (50–65%; P < 0.05) at the time of supplement consumption. However, there were no significant differences between the conditions at any time point for subjective appetite sensations or for energy consumed in the ad libitum meal: 4382 ± 1004, 4643 ± 982, 4514 ± 1112, 4177 ± 1494 kJ respectively. Conclusion: Increasing whey protein supplement dose above 20 g did not result in a measurable increase in satiety or decrease in food intake. However, the inclusion of additional whey protein supplementation where not otherwise consumed could plausibly reduce dietary intake.

Effect of Galactose Ingestion Before and During Exercise on Substrate Oxidation, Postexercise Satiety, and Subsequent Energy Intake in Females

Objective: To examine the effects of consuming a galactose carbohydrate (CHO) drink on substrate oxidation, postexercise satiety, and subsequent energy intake.Methods: Nine recreationally active eumenorrheic females undertook 3 trials, each consisting of running for 60 minutes at 65% VO2peak followed immediately by a 90-minute rest period. Prior to (300 ml) and at 15-minute intervals during exercise (150 ml), participants consumed either a glucose (GLU: GI 89) or galactose (GAL: GI 20) drink, each of which contained 45 g of CHO, or an artificially sweetened placebo (PLA). Following the rest period, participants were provided with an ad libitum test lunch and asked to record food intake for the remainder of the day.Results: Plasma glucose was significantly greater throughout exercise and rest following the GLU trial compared with the GAL and PLA trials (P < 0.05); however there were no differences in CHO oxidation. Hunger was significantly lower (P < 0.05) throughout the GAL compared to the GLU and PLA trials. There were no significant differences between trials for energy intake during the postexercise meal. Overall net energy balance for the 24 hours was negative in both the GAL (−162 ± 115 kcal; P < 0.05 vs GLU) and PLA trials (−49 ± 160 kcal).Conclusions: Results demonstrate that ingesting a solution containing GAL before and during exercise can positively impact postexercise satiety and energy balance throughout the day, compared to a more readily available and widely consumed form of CHO. Despite this, there appears to be no apparent benefit in consuming a CHO beverage on fuel utilization for this moderate exercise intensity and duration.

Effect Of Post-Exercise Skimmed Milk Or Sucrose Drink Ingestion On Subsequent Appetite And Energy Intake

Ingestion of carbohydrate and protein post-exercise enhances muscle glycogen resynthesis and protein synthesis, respectively, as well as post-exercise recovery. Many exercisers do so for weight management and thus post-exercise energy intake (EI) weakens the energy deficit created by exercise and influences energy balance. PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of manipulating post-exercise recovery drink on subsequent appetite and ad-libitum EI. METHODS: After familiarisation, 10 lean males (mean (SD): age 21.3 (1.2) y, height 1.79 (0.65) m, body mass 79.2 (9.6) kg, body fat 16.5 (3.9) %) completed three randomised experimental trials. Two hours after a standard breakfast, subjects performed 30 min exercise at 60% VO2peak and five 4 min intervals at 85% VO2peak separated by 2 min rest. Post-exercise, 615 ml of a placebo (PLA: 32 kJ), skimmed milk (MILK: 912 kJ) or sucrose (CHO: 918 kJ) drink was consumed, each containing 15 ml vanilla essence and 2 g aspartame. Sixty min after drink ingestion, subjects were provided a single item ad-libitum meal and ate to satiety. Acylated ghrelin was determined in blood samples collected pre-exercise, post-exercise and pre-meal, whilst subjective appetite was measured throughout the trial and flavour characteristics of drinks were rated. RESULTS:Ad-libitum EI was lower in MILK (6746 (2035) kJ) than CHO (7762 (1921) kJ) (P<0.05) and similar in MILK and PLA (7672 (2005) kJ) (P=0.116). When energy consumed in the post-exercise drink was considered, total EI was greater in CHO than PLA or MILK (P<0.05). There were no trial differences for acylated ghrelin concentration or subjective appetite (P>0.05). MILK was rated thicker and creamier than CHO and PLA, with MILK and CHO rated sweeter than PLA (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that post-exercise consumption of skimmed milk, but not a sucrose drink suppresses subsequent EI, a finding that might be related to the thickness/creaminess of the skimmed milk. As skimmed milk ingestion has been shown to enhance post-exercise recovery and training adaptation, these findings suggest that these benefits might be possible without weakening the energy deficit induced by exercise. Skimmed milk might represent a favourable post-exercise recovery drink for exercisers undertaking weight loss or weight maintenance programmes.

Correlations Between Metabolic Rate, Hunger, and Energy Intake With and Without Exercise in Lean Men

Recent evidence suggests that resting metabolic rate (RMR) is correlated with hunger and energy intake (EI) in overweight and obese adults (Caudwell et al. 2013); however, this relationship has not been examined in lean adults. Furthermore, whether pre-meal metabolic rate is associated with subsequent hunger or meal EI remains to be elucidated. PURPOSE: To assess relationships between measures of energy expenditure (EE), hunger, and EI in lean men. METHODS: Following an overnight fast, eight physically active men (age: 25 ± 3 y, body mass: 79.6 ± 9.7 kg, body fat 13 ± 6%; mean ± SD) completed four 10-h test days in the laboratory. Three buffet-type meals were served per test day. Prior to each meal, 30-min breath-by-breath gas measures were collected in addition to hunger ratings. One of the test days, exercise day (Ex), included a sprint interval exercise session (four “all out” 30-s running bouts) performed 1.5 h prior to lunch. The other three test days were non-exercise days (NoEx). The trapezoid method was used to calculate 10-h area under the curve (AUC) for hunger ratings and gas collections (eight per test day) to obtain total EE (TEE). Pearson correlation coefficients are reported. Relationships within subjects were analyzed with the Bland and Altman (1995) method using multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: TEE was significantly correlated with total (3-meal) EI (TEI; Ex: r = 0.71, P = 0.05 and NoEx: r = 0.77, P = 0.03), but not with hunger AUC (Ex: r = 0.47, P = 0.24 and NoEx: r = 0.62, P = 0.10). The correlation between hunger AUC and TEI approached significance during Ex (r = 0.69, P = 0.06) but not NoEx (r = 0.34, P = 0.40). Correlations between RMR and TEI (Ex: r = 0.57, P = 0.14 and NoEx: r = 0.65, P = 0.08), and RMR and hunger AUC (Ex: r = 0.65, P = 0.08 and NoEx: r = 0.67, P = 0.07) approached significance. Relationships within subjects (96 observations) showed that pre-meal metabolic rate was correlated with hunger (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and with meal EI (r = 0.11, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These data appear to confirm the robustness of the relationship between RMR and EI in a sample of lean men, and extend these findings to pre-meal metabolic status despite the small sample size. Relationships between measures of EE, EI and hunger in lean adults may also be strengthened with exercise. Supported by GSSI, Subway, PepsiCo and Real Canadian Superstore.

Higher proportion of total and fat energy intake during the morning may reduce absolute intake of energy within the day. An observational study in free-living Japanese adults

Background: Although the distribution of energy intake throughout the day appears to impact overall daily energy intake, little is known about the ad libitum distribution of energy intake. Objective: Our aim was to investigate associations between the distribution of energy intake during the day and subsequent or overall energy intake, and food choice in free-living adults. Design: A total of 119 women and 116 men completed 16-day semi-weighed dietary records. The longitudinal dietary intake data for each participant were analyzed using a mixed model to examine the effect of energy intake at various times of day on subsequent or overall energy intake. Results: Mean proportion of total energy intake in the morning (4:00 a.m.–10:29 a.m.), afternoon (10:30 a.m.–4:59 p.m.) and evening (5:00 p.m.–3:59 a.m.) meal was 22.6%, 33.8% and 43.6% in men, and 24.7%, 36.5%, 38.8% in women, respectively. Proportion of energy intake (%) in the morning meal was significantly and negatively associated with energy intake (kcal) in the subsequent afternoon and evening meals, and consequently in the whole day in both sexes. This significant and negative association was also observed for proportion of energy intake (%) of fat, but not of carbohydrate or protein, in both sexes. Proportion of energy intake (%) in the morning meal was negatively associated with overall energy intake (kcal) from the group of meats, fish, and eggs in both sexes, and from the group of confectioneries and soft drinks in women. Conclusions: More energy in the morning meal may reduce energy intake, especially that from fat, in the subsequent meals, and consequently in the whole day.

Post-meal perceivable satiety and subsequent energy intake with intake of partially hydrolysed guar gum.

Partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG), a soluble dietary fibre, has been shown to provide many health benefits. Previous studies had suggested that the combination of PHGG with protein provided a significant satiation effect on visual analogue scales (VAS). What was lacking was only the effect of administration of small doses of PHGG on post-meal satiation and subsequent energy intake. The objectives of the present investigations were to find the subjective perception of post-meal satiety with acute and long term administration of small amounts of PHGG alone with food, its effects on subsequent energy intake and the comparative effects among different types of soluble fibres. The following three separate studies were conducted: in study 1, healthy subjects (n 12) consumed PHGG along with breakfast, lunch and an evening snack; in study 2, healthy subjects (n 24) consumed 2 g of PHGG or dextrin along with yogurt as breakfast for 2 weeks; in study 3, healthy subjects (n 6) took 6 g each of either PHGG or indigestible dextrin or inulin along with lunch. In all the studies, various satiety parameters were measured on VAS before and after consumption of PHGG. The addition of PHGG showed significant (P < 0.05) acute (studies 1 and 3) and long-term (studies 1 and 2) satiety effects compared to the control and/or an equal amount of carbohydrate or other types of soluble fibre. Study 2 also indicated that the prolonged consumption of PHGG may significantly (P < 0.05) reduce energy intake from whole-day snacking. PHGG could be an ideal natural soluble fibre for delivering acute and long term satiety effects for comfortable appetite control.

Increased 24-hour ad libitum food intake is associated with lower plasma irisin concentrations the following morning in adult humans

Background: The relationship between food intake and irisin concentrations in humans is unclear. Objectives: To determine whether the previous day's intake impacts fasting plasma irisin concentrations, or whether fasting irisin concentrations associate with subsequent ad libitum food intake. Methods: Sixty-six nondiabetic adults (42 men) were admitted for a study of the determinants of energy intake. After 6 days of a weight maintaining diet, ad libitum energy intake over 3 days was assessed using a vending machine paradigm. Fasting plasma irisin concentrations were measured on the morning of the second day of the vending period. Results: There were no correlations between irisin and demographic or anthropometric parameters. On day 1, subjects consumed 144 ± 52% of weight maintaining energy needs. Every additional 500 kcal consumed on day 1 associated with a 3.4% lower irisin concentration the following morning (95% CI −6.2, −0.4%, p = 0.01; adjusted for age, sex and race). If energy intake was expressed as a percentage of weight maintaining energy needs, every 10% increase associated with a 1.9% lower irisin concentration (95% CI −3.7, −0.1%; adjusted p = 0.02). A 100 kcal increase in carbohydrate or fat consumption associated with a 1.3% (95% CI −2.5, −0.1%, p = 0.01) and a 0.6% (95% CI −1.1, −0.0%, p = 0.02) lower irisin concentration, respectively. There was no association between fasting irisin concentrations and subsequent energy intake on day 2 (r = 0.19, p = 0.1). Conclusions: Higher ad libitum 24 h energy intake was associated with lower fasting irisin concentrations the following morning, but fasting irisin concentrations did not predict subsequent energy intake. The decrease in irisin concentrations with increased energy intake is consistent with the detrimental metabolic effects of overeating.

The Effect of an Egg Breakfast on Satiety in Children and Adolescents: A Randomized Crossover Trial

Objective: To evaluate the effects of an egg breakfast on lunchtime energy intake in children (age 4–6 years) and adolescents (age 14–17 years).Methods: In 2 randomized crossover trials, participants received either an egg breakfast or an isocaloric bagel breakfast. In both trials, subsequent lunchtime energy intake was the primary outcome. The trial with adolescents also measured each participant's serum ghrelin, serum peptide YY (PYY), and self-assessment of appetite rated using a visual analog scale.Results: Lunchtime food intakes after egg and bagel breakfasts were not significantly different for either age group. Visual analog scale ratings of hunger and satiety were also not different between the 2 treatments in adolescents. Consumption of the egg breakfast led to a significant increase in serum PYY levels (p = 0.0001) in adolescents. However, increased levels of PYY were not correlated with reduced food intake.Conclusion: Short-term food intake in children and adolescents is not differentially altered by an egg breakfast compared to a bagel breakfast.

Calcium Ingestion Suppresses Appetite and Produces Acute Overcompensation of Energy Intake Independent of Protein in Healthy Adults1–3

AbstractBackground: Prior evidence suggests that high-calcium intake influences postprandial appetite and insulinemia, possibly due to elevated incretins. In vitro and ex vivo models demonstrate that extracellular calcium and protein synergistically enhance secretion of incretins. This is yet to be shown in humans.Objective: This study was designed to assess energy intake compensation in response to protein and calcium ingestion.Methods: Twenty healthy adults (13 men; 7 women) completed 4 trials in a randomized, double-blind crossover design separated by ≥48 h. During the trials, each participant consumed a low-calcium and low-protein control preload [(CON); 4 g and 104 mg, respectively], a high-protein preload (PRO; 29 g), a high-calcium preload (CAL; 1170 mg), or a high-protein and high-calcium preload (PROCAL). Blood samples were collected at baseline and 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after preload ingestion to determine insulin and incretin hormone concentrations. Energy intake was assessed by a homogenous test meal 60 min after the preload. Visual analog scales were completed immediately before blood sampling to assess subjective appetite sensations.Results: Relative to the CON, the PRO produced 100% (95% CI: 85%, 115%) energy compensation, whereas the CAL produced significant overcompensation [118% (95% CI: 104%, 133%)], which was significantly more positive than with the PRO (P < 0.05). The PROCAL resulted in energy compensation of 109% (95% CI: 95%, 123%), which tended to be greater than with the PRO (P = 0.06). The mean difference in appetite sensations relative to the CON was not significantly different between the PRO (−3 mm; 95% CI: −8, 3 mm), CAL (−5 mm; 95% CI: −9, 0 mm), and PROCAL (−5 mm; 95% CI: −10, −1 mm) (P > 0.05).Conclusions: The addition of protein to a preload results in almost perfect energy compensation, whereas the addition of calcium, with or without protein, suppresses appetite and produces overcompensation of subsequent energy intake. The role of circulating insulin and incretin concentrations in these responses, however, remains unclear. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01986036.