Sub-regions Of Asia Research Articles

Determinants of Life Satisfaction in Asia

While many studies on life satisfaction have been conducted in Western countries, there is still a dearth of such studies in Asia and other parts of the less developed world. To fill the lacuna in research, we used data from the Asia Barometer survey to examine the differentials in life satisfaction across Asian countries, and analyse the determinants of life satisfaction in the four sub-regions of Asia. We found that many other factors such as marital status, standard of living, and role of government have a greater influence than income on life satisfaction in Asia. The importance of marital status on life satisfaction in Asia can be attributed to Asian culture which places great emphasis on family values. The standard of living is probably a better measure of quality of life than income, as it takes into account non-monetary benefits such as better facilities provided by state. In low resource countries, good governance and efficient utilization of resources for the benefit of the citizens contributes to life satisfaction. However, education, gender and age are not significant determinants of life satisfaction in Asian countries. Be that as it may, education may have an indirect role as it tends to improve the job status of an individual and hence one's income and standard of living. Policies that are formulated to enhance life satisfaction should be geared towards strengthening the family institution, improving the standard of living and good governance, while pursuing socioeconomic development and increasing the country's GDP.

Reconstructing Asian Women’s Studies through Tricontinentalism and the Red-Green-Purple Paradigm

This paper proposes “tricontinentalism” and the “Red-Green-Purple” paradigm as part of the theoretical terrain of Asian Women’s Studies, while examining the problems of Asian Women’s Studies such as one-nation-centeredness, East-Asianism, Asian-centeredness and the confusion of postcolonial feminism with transnational feminism. Doing so will, first, require a reflection on Asia from a bottom-up perspective of the South, which gives more attention to the marginal Asian countries and their sub-regions. Then it is necessary to revive dialogue between the formerly colonized three continents of Asia, Africa, and Latin America within the context of “tricontinentalism.” Making visible diverse postcolonial locations will push us to place the complicated and multifaceted connections and interactions between the sub-regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America at the center of our analysis. This sub-regional tricontinentalism can be based in postcolonial feminism redeployed with the “Red-Green-Purple” paradigm. This will advance intersectional subjectivities constituted by the class-race-gender/sexuality axis toward an alliance of the labor-ecology-sexuality movement. Asian Women’s Studies, reconstructed through such theoretical frameworks, aims to highlight the oppositional agencies of gendered subalterns in Asia (linked with Africa and/or Latin America) to deflect and resist the cruel and unrelenting demands of global patriarchal capitalism.

Female Migration, Education and Occupational Development: A Geospatial Analysis of Asian Countries

AbstractFeminization of international migration is a global phenomenon. One of the most significant trends in migration has been the entry of women into migration streams. The percentage of women in the migrant population has been increasing in the post war period and now women comprise majority of international migrants. Female immigration in Asia has been estimated to be about 45 per cent to total immigrants. Among all the sub-regions of Asia, Central Asia is the largest host of female immigrants leaving behind eastern Asia. In this article, an attempt has been made to find out the extent and pattern of female migration in 50 Asian countries and an analysis has been done to measure the levels of educational and occupational development of females with the help of selected indicators exploring the fact, whether the development of any nation plays an effective role in the movement of females from their native places. All the development indicators with well defined variables have been categorized in two broad categories such as educational and occupational development. For this purpose, composite Z-score technique was used for measuring the levels of development. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation was applied to determine the relationship between female migration and their development.

Evaluating Investments in Economic Corridor Development: Lessons from the South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation Study

This paper examines experience of economic corridor development in the South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) region of South Asia. It lays out an applied framework for prioritizing trade-related interventions and investments according to the expected strength of their combined economic impacts. Along the way, and for the first time, the economic geography of northeastern South Asia has been comprehensively mapped. Computer-driven modeling traces the links between resulting spatial transformations to trade affecting productivity, and the spatial distribution of productivity. Spatial transformation and structural changes suggest another channel for welfare gains from trade. In this way the paper makes a novel contribution to the new economic geography literature.

Social impact of international migration and remittances in Central Asia

The dissolution of the former Soviet Union and the transition from a centrally planned to a market-based economy within the subregion of Central Asia has been accompanied by population movements which were unprecedented in modern history. While lack of reliable statistical data makes it difficult to assess the scope and scale of such movements in Central Asia, migration is predicted to rise substantially due to declining working-age populations in some countries, and high rates of population growth accompanied by relative economic disadvantage in others. This article attempts to explore key social issues emerging in relation to labor migration and remittances, and examines the impact of migration on communities in both countries of origin and countries of destination. It concludes with key policy recommendations, which include: instigating constructive regional dialogue on migration; focusing on gender-sensitive issues; undertaking policy measures to effectively address the needs of migrants; and creating better social protection and services for migrants and their families.

Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease in suburban population of 3 municipalities in Nepal

Background Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world including Nepal. The assessment of risk factors responsible for CVD can predict 10 year risk of CVD. World Health Organization (WHO) risk assessment chart, specially designed for South East Asia Sub-region D can predict the risk of CVD in Nepal. Method and Materials A total 532 study population from Panauti, Banepa and Dhulikhel were calculated their 10 year risk of CVD using WHO/ISH risk prediction chart on the basis of risk factors: age, gender, smoking status, diabetes, systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol. Result Ten year risk of developing cardiovascular disease is less than 10% among the population less than 50 years, irrespective of gender. 5% of male population had more than 10% chance of developing cardiovascular events in next ten years. One third of 60 – 69 years people had more than 10% chance of developing cardiovascular disease whereas it increased to 50% among 70 years and older group. Conclusion The assessment of risk factors is quite easy and cheap tool to predict the cardiovascular event, which support to practice the good clinical management to prevent the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/njh.v8i1.8328 Nepalese Heart Journal Vol.8(1) 2011 pp.3-7

Epidemiologic update on the dengue situation in the Western Pacific Region, 2011

Dengue is an emerging vectorborne infectious disease that is a major public health concern in the Asia and the Pacific. Official dengue surveillance data for 2011 provided by ministries of health were summarized as part of routine activities of the World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. Based on officially reported surveillance data, dengue continued to show sustained activity in the Western Pacific Region. In 2011, Member States reported a total of 244,855 cases of which 839 died for a case fatality rate of 0.34%. More than 1000 cases were reported each from Cambodia, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, the Philippines, the Marshall Islands, Singapore and Viet Nam. Cambodia, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands reported higher activity relative to 2010. There continues to be great variability among the dengue-endemic countries and areas in the Region in the number of cases and serotype distribution. The continued high notification rate and complex dengue epidemiology in the Region highlight the need for information-sharing on a routine and timely basis.

Australia’s 2015 Defence White Paper: Seeking Strategic Opportunities in Southeast Asia to Help Manage China’s Peaceful Rise

The victory of the conservative Liberal Party led by Tony Abbott in the September 2013 general elections means that is now committed to the preparation of a new white paper --the country's third in six years--to be released in early 2015. The timing was pre-determined on the back of public promises by Abbott and then shadow minister David Johnston during the campaign to deliver the new white paper within eighteen months of entering government. Plans are already underway to ensure that the document will be delivered on time. (1) While the top priority for planners over several decades has been to ensure the defence of Australia by acquiring military capabilities to repel any direct enemy advances against the mainland, the 2000, (2) 2009 (3) and 2013 (4) white papers delivered by the John Howard, Kevin Rudd and Julia Gillard governments, respectively, have all upheld the importance of strategic stability in the Asia-Pacific as a critical national security interest. This was reaffirmed in the pre-election policy document released by Senator Johnston who has now been sworn in as Australia's Defence Minister. (5) Although the somewhat meaningless phrase Century (6) is now widely used in Australian strategic, and economic discourse, some of Australia's neighbours suspect that Canberra focuses too heavily on large Northeast Asian powers such as China and Japan, and not enough on major Southeast Asian players, the latter region defined in this article as the subregion of Asia consisting of countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of Papua New Guinea and north of Australia. To be fair, Canberra's attention is appropriately directed towards its three largest trading partners in Asia--China, Japan and South Korea --which are all in Northeast Asia, while the structural causes of potential region-wide instability is primarily a Northeast Asian phenomenon as possible instability is primarily driven by China's re-emergence as a Great Power. Even so, previous Australian white papers have tended to take a predominantly approach to Southeast Asia in that they posit that Canberra should ensure that it has adequate military capabilities to manage and contain risks to its national interests should adverse developments occur in that region. While this is a sensible and prudent position to take, little ground has been made in terms of exploring the strategic possibilities of Southeast Asia, and in particular how Australian relationships in Southeast Asia and the capabilities that it brings to the table can contribute to the broader objective of ensuring strategic stability in Asia. In other words, the strategic analysis underpinning the next white paper ought to do several things. Rather than treating Southeast Asia as a standalone strategic region, it needs to link bilateral and multilateral opportunities in Southeast Asia with the future shape of strategic decisions made by powerful players in East Asia, and China in particular. In addition, in conceiving of Australia's future place and role in Southeast Asia, Canberra needs to go beyond its risk management approach. Instead, Canberra should view Southeast Asia as a region filled with strategic opportunity, which directly feeds into the goal of ensuring greater stability throughout Asia. In making this argument, the paper comprises three parts. First, it offers a brief summary of recent Australian strategic and thinking on Southeast Asia. Second, it outlines why China is the key variable when it comes to strategic stability or instability in the region, and how China's strategy in achieving its objectives can be shaped and influenced by events and relationships in Southeast Asia. Finally, the paper offers some suggestions as to the role can seek to play in Southeast Asia that will contribute to strategic stability in Asia more generally. …

Adaptation of global climate change projections for local level application: Case study, special forest ecosystem, Astara

During recent years, a series of climate projections provided for surface temperature increase and precipitation changes over the next century in various time slices. National institutes are using downscaling projections for more precise results. In this research study, various climate change projections in global, continental, regional and local scales have been examined in special forest ecosystem in Astara. To study past climate conditions, main climatic factors namely temperature and precipitation as well as relative humidity and wind were considered. Downscaling climate projections in national and local scales have some agreement and disagreement with available global, continental and regional projections. According to all reports in different scales temperature of Astara region, in last half century has been increased. In the longer future time period, the study area will face with higher values of increasing temperature. According to the scenario A1B (2090-2099) in the winter, western part of Hyrcanian forest including Astara will experience 10% increment of precipitation and in the summer 20% decrement of precipitation. This is in agreement with Central Asia sub-region projection and in disagreement with West Asia sub-region projection. For the future projection of precipitation in Astara area, there are no significant differences between global, Central Asia sub-region, Middle East, national and local downscaling projections.

An analysis of health system resources in relation to pandemic response capacity in the Greater Mekong Subregion

BackgroundThere is increasing perception that countries cannot work in isolation to militate against the threat of pandemic influenza. In the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) of Asia, high socio-economic diversity and fertile conditions for the emergence and spread of infectious diseases underscore the importance of transnational cooperation. Investigation of healthcare resource distribution and inequalities can help determine the need for, and inform decisions regarding, resource sharing and mobilisation.MethodsWe collected data on healthcare resources deemed important for responding to pandemic influenza through surveys of hospitals and district health offices across four countries of the GMS (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Vietnam). Focusing on four key resource types (oseltamivir, hospital beds, ventilators, and health workers), we mapped and analysed resource distributions at province level to identify relative shortages, mismatches, and clustering of resources. We analysed inequalities in resource distribution using the Gini coefficient and Theil index.ResultsThree quarters of the Cambodian population and two thirds of the Laotian population live in relatively underserved provinces (those with resource densities in the lowest quintile across the region) in relation to health workers, ventilators, and hospital beds. More than a quarter of the Thai population is relatively underserved for health workers and oseltamivir. Approximately one fifth of the Vietnamese population is underserved for beds and ventilators. All Cambodian provinces are underserved for at least one resource. In Lao PDR, 11 percent of the population is underserved by all four resource items. Of the four resources, ventilators and oseltamivir were most unequally distributed. Cambodia generally showed higher levels of inequalities in resource distribution compared to other countries. Decomposition of the Theil index suggests that inequalities result principally from differences within, rather than between, countries.ConclusionsThere is considerable heterogeneity in healthcare resource distribution within and across countries of the GMS. Most inequalities result from within countries. Given the inequalities, mismatches, and clustering of resources observed here, resource sharing and mobilization in a pandemic scenario could be crucial for more effective and equitable use of the resources that are available in the GMS.

Seventeen new species of the spider genus Teutamus Thorell, 1890 from Southeast Asia (Araneae: Liocranidae)

Seventeen new species of the spider genus Teutamus Thorell, 1890 are described from Southeast Asia: two species from southern Thailand and Malaysia (T. rama sp. nov. and T. brachiatus sp. nov.); seven species from the Malay Peninsula (T. serrulatus sp. nov., T. apiculatus sp. nov., T. lioneli sp. nov., T. calceolatus sp. nov., T. globularis sp. nov., T. leptothecus sp. nov. and T. deelemanae sp. nov.); five species from Sumatra, Indonesia (T. orthogonus sp. nov., T. tortuosus sp. nov., T. rollardae sp. nov., T. poggii sp. nov. and T. sumatranus sp. nov.); one species from Borneo, Indonesia (T. spiralis sp. nov.); one species from Indonesia and Malaysia (T. seculatus sp. nov.); and one species from the Philippines (T. hirtellus sp. nov.). The type species, T. politus Thorell, 1890, was examined and illustrated. This speciose genus of generalized ant mimics is common throughout the forests of the Sundaland sub-region of Southeast Asia.

Cancer Control in the Asia Pacific Region: Current Status and Concerns

Cancer is becoming an increasingly important health problem in the low- and middle-income countries in the Asia Pacific region, as well as in high-income countries because of ageing populations and changes in lifestyle associated with economic development and epidemiologic transition. This paper reviews the cancer burden and control in the Asia Pacific region (limited to East Asia, South Eastern Asia and Pacific Islands countries, territories and other areas), with relevant information primarily extracted from the GLOBOCAN 2008, Cancer Incidence in Five Continents series and WHO websites. Most low- and middle-income countries have a cancer control strategy and/or an action plan; however, coverage of cancer registration is still very low and does not meet the international standard in terms of quality. Therefore, only limited data were available for the recent global estimation of cancer burden. Large variations, in both cancer incidence and mortality, were observed in the populations in the different sub-regions of Asia. The most common cancer in males is lung cancer in the Eastern and South Eastern sub-regions, while prostate cancer comes close to lung cancer in the Pacific Island countries. In females, breast cancer is the most common in all three regions. The predominance of lung, stomach, colorectal, prostate, breast and cervical cancers makes cancer control more amenable in the Asia Pacific region. Up-to-date statistics on cancer occurrence and outcome are essential for the planning and evaluation of cancer control programmes. Priority can be given to population-based cancer registration, risk reduction, especially tobacco control, and primary health care based enhancement of health care systems to diagnose and manage cancer specifically in low- and middle-income countries.

Who Enjoys ICT Development? An Investigation into the Role of ICT Development in Asian Countries Using Dynamic Panel Data

Asian countries are at different development stages in the building of an information and communication technology (ICT) industry. Although East Asian countries, especially Japan and Korea, have reached a high penetration rate of broadband and telephony, most of the South and South-East Asian countries are still at the early stage of the diffusion process. It is even more interesting that some Asian countries have recently achieved robust growth in the penetration rate of particular ICT devices, for instance, cellular ones, amid sluggish socio-economic performance. This phenomenon raises the question of how the contribution by ICT affects society and who enjoys the development of this sector? In order to address these questions, this study aims to relate the network externality with regard to socio-economic variables included in the calculation of the Human Development Index (HDI): educational attainment and health (life-expectancy rate). The ICT variables of the analysis include the penetration rate of the fixed-line, Internet subscriber, computer and TV. The study covers roughly 35 selected Asian countries that represent all the sub-regions in Asia based on the World Bank and International Telecommunication Union’s database, and the figures range in time from 1983 to 2005. The study first identifies the unit root test and then builds cointegration between the series. As there are many gaps in the data, the Maddala-Wu (1999) estimation is implemented while the Westerlund (2007) cointegration test is applied to non-stationary series. The results are quite surprising in that most ICT device development has no statistical evidence of cointegration with socio-economic variables. Primary education has very weak cointegration with the development of ICT devices however. Thus, there is a need for further innovation in this sector to provide more socio-economic devices to support a better level of welfare.

Diego Garcia and the United States' Emerging Indian Ocean Strategy

As the world's economic and strategic “center of gravity” shifts from the Euro-Atlantic area to the Asia-Pacific, the Indian Ocean is emerging as an increasingly critical trade and energy conduit. This region has long been a strategic backwater for the United States. Moreover, unlike in other critical subregions of Asia, the United States lacks significant host-nation bases and is unlikely to acquire them. The British territory of Diego Garcia, whose location and political reliability give it significant strategic utility, is thus central to US power projection in the Indian Ocean littoral region. The US military's approach to Diego Garcia reflects an implicit Indian Ocean strategy that seeks to establish a flexible and enduring presence within a critical and contested space. However, Washington needs to move toward an explicit Indian Ocean policy that views the region holistically rather than narrowly viewing separate US Pacific Command, US Central Command, and US Africa Command theaters.

Socioeconomic Impacts of Cross-Border Transport Infrastructure Development in South Asia

Although the overall economic performance of economies in South Asia in recent years has been impressive, there is concern that an aging and increasingly inadequate infrastructure may limit the potential for further growth and economic development. A critical infrastructure component is the transportation network, and there are currently several transportation infrastructure projects in the South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) region, connecting Nepal, eastern India, Bangladesh, and Bhutan. This paper uses computable general equilibrium (CGE) methods to address how these infrastructure developments might affect the broader economy in SASEC, and in particular impact on income distribution and poverty. The paper describes a new CGE model for South Asia, covering India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, which incorporates modifications to household structure in order to capture the implications of reform for changes in intra-household income. The scenarios that are considered reflect proposed investments in land transport infrastructure in the SASEC region. These should result in reductions in the land transport component of international transport margins, which vary bilaterally by commodity. We found that all SASEC economies would benefit from the reductions in terms of aggregate welfare, with the largest gains accruing to India in absolute terms, but the largest relative gains to Nepal, followed by Bangladesh and Sri Lanka when the margin reduction is prorated to intra-South Asian trade rather than just SASEC. In terms of household level distribution, the picture was mixed, with clearly pro-poor outcomes in some countries, such as Nepal, but more ambiguous impacts in others. In terms of potential adjustment costs, examination of the extent of predicted structural changes suggests that these would be minor, although somewhat more significant for the smaller economies in the region.

Medical Education Reform: The Asian Experience

Medical education reform is taking place all over the world including Asia, which has 60% of the world's population. Confronted with diverse social and cultural needs as well as resource constraints, various regions in Asia have carried out medical education reform at different levels and directions. In this article, the authors describe the application of Western-inspired reforms and localization and adaptation of Western models to fit the cultural and community needs in the five different subregions of Asia: (1) Eastern Asia, (2) Southern Asia, (3) Southeastern Asia, (4) Central Asia, and (5) Western Asia. The article reviews whether the medical education reforms brought improvement to the medical curricula and effectively fulfilled the cultural and social needs of Asian countries. The authors also explore the establishment of medical education departments in many Asian medical schools and the incorporation of research findings into medical practice. Departments of medical education will facilitate localization and promote further development of medical education reform in Asia despite the challenges ahead.

Psychometric Approach to Social Capital: Using AsiaBarometer Survey Data in 29 Asian Societies

AbstractThis paper is one of the few attempts made by social scientists to measure social capital via psychometric approach, and is the only one of such kind to base its evidence on the AsiaBarometer survey data. After first reviewing the history of social capital, including its conceptual emergence and recent literatures, we expose the issue of difficulty in the measurement of social capital despite its topical popularity. We tackle this measurement issue by applying psychometric procedures to the AsiaBarometer survey data of 2004, 2005, and 2006, focusing on questions pertaining to social capital of ordinary individuals residing in the 29 survey societies. This paper is significant in two aspects. First, using simple statistical procedures, it extracts various dimensions of social capital without first knowing what dimensions to extract. In short, it does not try to measure social capital using some kind of pre-defined concepts such as those outlined in the historical review of our predecessors. Rather, it succeeds in manifesting key factors of social capital – altruism, utilitarianism, communitarianism, and concordance with prevailing regime – by mechanically processing collective responses by individual respondents towards survey questions oriented with social capital. Though the paper does not aim to establish its methodology as a widely held consensus on how to measure social capital, it does give credence and recognition to psychometric approaches as effectives means to measure social capital, which, by its very definition, calls for ‘objective’ approaches using collective data to measure ‘subjective’ notions of individual actions within networks. Second, this paper is the first systematic empirical analysis of social capital in all the subregions of Asia, i.e. East, Southeast, South, and Central. It builds on our earlier works, including the 2006 paper on social capital in Central and South Asia, and gives empirical credence to important concepts on Asian political culture.

The Boao Forum for Asia Progress of Asian Economic Integration Annual Report 2009

This report represents a report card on the progress of economic integration in Asia under the current global financial crisis. It describes some of the major economic issues in the Asia-Australia region in the past, especially those events in the year 2009.The report describes in detail the impacts of the global financial crisis on Asia, how the Asian economies performed during the crisis, how they responded to the hardship caused by the global financial crisis and the encouraging signs that Asia is leading the world on the recovery path. Notably, China and India, the two most populous and fast-growing economies were able to maintain positive growth throughout the crisis. Their outstanding performance in growth and recovery have contributed substantially to the global efforts to overcome the current difficulties.With the severity of the global financial crisis Asia stood firm to intensify its efforts for closer economic cooperation among its members. The Asian economies are more inter-dependent on each other than ever before, with freer movements of goods, services, and capital. Faced with rising global protectionism, Asia called for greater trade and today’s Asia has emerged as a great guardian of the free global trading system.The report also examines the progress of economic integration and cooperation in Asia, including the ASEAN Plus Three process, the APEC and the possibility of fulfilling its goal of becoming a free trade area, the progress of economic integration in sub-regions of Asia. As a matter of fact, the process of economic integration in Asia is very much alive and is moving forward at a steady speed.The Copenhagen Meeting, the environmental issues and the work done by the Asian governments are not ignored in this report. The significance of these issues is that in terms of climate change and environmental protection, there has not been any formal cooperation framework among Asian members. Thus, the issues provide new opportunities for intensified regional cooperation.Asia is leading the world on the recovery path after the global financial crisis, and there is strong evidence that Asia will continue to maintain its vitality and dynamism. No doubt, economic integration in Asia is intensifying, with more intensive and extensive cooperation and mutual dependence among the economies, through the channels of trade, investment, finance, and macroeconomic coordination. We trust that the Asian members will make continued and joint efforts to overcome the current financial crisis and fulfill the goal of an integrated Asia.

Open Access to Knowledge and Information: Scholarly Literature and Digital Library Initiatives – the South Asian Scenario

The South Asia sub-region is now in the forefront of the Open Access movement within developing countries in the world, with India being the most prominent partner in terms of its successful Open Access and Digital Library initiatives. Institutional and policy frameworks in India also facilitate innovative solutions for increasing international visibility and accessibility of scholarly literature and documentary heritage in this country. This publication has its genesis in the recommendations and proceedings of UNESCO-supported international conferences and workshops including the 4th International Conference of Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL2001, Bangalore); the International Conferences on Digital Libraries (ICDL2004 & ICDL2006, New Delhi); and the International Workshop on Greenstone Digital Library Software (2006, Kozhikode), where many information professionals of this sub-region demonstrated their Digital Library and Open Access initiatives. This book describes successful digital library and open access initiatives in the South Asia sub-region that are available in the forms of open courseware, open access journals, metadata harvesting services, national-level open access repositories and institutional repositories. This book may be considered an authoritative Source-book on Open Access development in this sub-region.

History of Modern Librarianship in East Asia

Contextualizes the historical evolution of modern librarianship in East Asia, encompassing the sub-regions of North-East and South-East Asia, in the societies in which it emerged. Employs the theory of cultural hegemony, conceptualized by Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), as the foundation for viewing that evolution of East Asian librarianship. Discusses external influences, the role of human agency and technical and cultural heritage. A stated aim of the article is to reveal to practising and aspiring librarians, especially in East Asia, the cultural determinants of their professional history and help them gain a better understanding of the complex roots in the development of libraries globally.