Submarine Volcanic Eruption Research Articles

The 6–8 Aug 2019 eruption of ‘Volcano F’ in the Tofua Arc, Tonga

In August 2019 a large raft of pumice appeared in the territorial waters of Tonga. As in many other cases, this pumice raft was the only surface expression of a major submarine volcanic eruption. Discolored water and reconstruction of the drift path of the pumice raft using satellite imagery points towards ‘Volcano F’ in the Tofua Arc NW of the island of Vava’u as the most likely volcanic source. Here we present imagery from ESA’s Sentinel-2 satellite that captured the start of the submarine eruption on 6 August 2019 and the waning of the eruption on 8 August, followed by observations of the drifting pumice raft until 14 August. This start time is consistent with T-phase records at the seismic stations on Niue Island and Rarotonga and the signal delay time of 733s between the two stations is consistent with an origin at or at least near Volcano F. On 8 August, a >136.7 km2 large raft of pumice appears at the sea surface. The modelled minimum raft volume is 8.2–41.0*106m3, which is equivalent to 2.5–12.3*106m3 dense rock. The eruption thus corresponds to a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) 2–3 eruption in the submarine environment. Prior to the volcanic eruption, a series of earthquakes close to Volcano F was recorded. The series started on 5 August with a Mb 4.7 event, followed by at least six shallow earthquakes (Mb >3.9) on 6 August. In December 2018 and January 2019, we surveyed the seafloor around Volcano F with multibeam sonar. Combining our data with pre-existing information, we present the first comprehensive bathymetric map of the volcanic edifice and its geologic setting. We show that Volcano F represents a major arc volcanic complex that is situated in an extensional setting. The basal diameter of the volcanic apron is >50km with a large central, 8.7x6km caldera with a floor at ∼700m water depth. The top of the post-caldera constructional cone complex had a summit depth of 35m below sea level in 2004. The volcano shows geochemical differences to the adjacent arc volcanoes on Fonualei and Late islands. The volcano’s pristine volcanic morphology and two documented eruptions (2001 and 2019) indicate a highly active volcanic system that warrants further scientific attention.

The impact of the submarine volcano Kick ‘em Jenny on benthic foraminifera

Nothing is known about the impact on marine meiofauna of submarine volcanic eruptions in the Grenada Basin. The benthic foraminiferal fauna is here examined in piston cores taken within ∼8 – 38 km of the crater of Kick ‘em Jenny (KeJ), decadal eruptions of which disseminate ash to the NW via the Caribbean Current. Piston core Gs29, taken ∼8 km W of the crater, consists of clay-rich material from the Globorotalia menardii Zone U, ∼500 ka old, probably exposed by slumping. The remaining cores (from proximal to distal: GC59, GC90, GC99 and GC100), taken between 1000 – 3000 m water depth, comprise volcanic ash and are of presumed Holocene age. Recovery from GC59, GC90 and GC99, the last taken 27.3 km NW of the crater, was poor and apparently reflects volcanic ash impact. Recovery from GC100, 38 km NW of the crater and from the basin floor, was rich. Thus, KeJ disrupts seafloor colonization by foraminifera up to 32 – 38 km from the crater. Bolivina spp., indicative of low dissolved oxygen concentrations, dominated the assemblage in proximal core Gs29. Cassidulina spp. dominated the distal core GC100 assemblage, indicating somewhat higher dissolved oxygen concentrations. This might reflect a long-term change in productivity in the area, or a nutrient-rich surface eddy to the lee of Grenada. Allochthonous, shallow-water foraminifera, recovered throughout cores Gs29 and GC100, were more abundant in the latter. This might indicate that Grenada protects nearshore foraminifera from disruptive hurricanes.

Recent Eruptions Between 2012 and 2018 Discovered at West Mata Submarine Volcano (NE Lau Basin, SW Pacific) and Characterized by New Ship, AUV, and ROV Data

West Mata is a submarine volcano located in the SW Pacific Ocean between Fiji and Samoa in the NE Lau Basin. West Mata was discovered to be actively erupting at its summit in September 2008 and May 2009. Water-column chemistry and hydrophone data suggest it was probably continuously active until early 2011. Subsequent repeated bathymetric surveys of West Mata have shown that it changed to a style of frequent but intermittent eruptions away from the summit since then. We present new data from ship-based bathymetric surveys, high-resolution bathymetry from an autonomous underwater vehicle, and observations from remotely operated vehicle dives that document four additional eruptions between 2012-2018. Three of those eruptions occurred between September 2012 and March 2016; one near the summit on the upper ENE rift, a second on the NE flank away from any rift zone, and a third at the NE base of the volcano. The latter intruded a sill into a basin with thick sediments, uplifted them, and then extruded lava onto the seafloor around them. The most recent of the four eruptions occurred between March 2016 and November 2017 along the middle ENE rift zone and produced pillow lava flows with a shingled morphology and tephra as well as clastic debris that mantled the SE slope. ROV dive observations show that the shallower recent eruptions at West Mata include a substantial pyroclastic component, based on thick (>1m) tephra deposits near eruptive vents. The deepest eruption sites lack these near-vent tephra deposits, suggesting that pyroclastic activity is minimal below ~2500 mbsl. The multibeam sonar re-surveys constrain the timing, thickness, area, morphology, and volume of the new eruptions. The cumulative erupted volume since 1996 suggests that eruptions at West Mata are volume-predictable with an average eruption rate of 7.8 x 106 m3/yr. This relatively low magma supply rate and the high frequency of eruptions (every 1-2 years) suggests that the magma reservoir at West Mata is relatively small. With its frequent activity, West Mata continues to be an ideal natural laboratory for the study of submarine volcanic eruptions.

Geochemical signals related to the 2011–2012 El Hierro submarine eruption

On 10 October 2011, a submarine volcanic eruption began 2 km south of the island of El Hierro (Canary Islands, Spain). It was the first eruption after 40 years of quiescence in the Canarian archipelago. Since mid-July 2011, a multiparametric network has been deployed by the Instituto Geográfico Nacional (hereinafter IGN) to monitor volcanic processes. The data recorded by five stations, measuring the air and soil temperature, CO2 and radon concentration in the air inside four galleries and one well, are the focus of the present paper. Two important anomalies were found that improve comprehension of the volcanic process. First, a clear increase in CO2 concentration in one gallery (from 825 ± 19 to 2305 ± 35 ppm) which seems to be mainly controlled by ground deformation measured during the unrest period preceding the eruption. Second, a relationship between radon concentration in air in a well located in the northern side of the island with seismic energy release (several peaks with up to 115% increase), and ground deformation (50% growth in background level), also before the eruption onset. Lastly, changes in radon concentration during eruptive period seem to be modulated by seismic activity (increases up to 233%), which in turn is likely related to variations in magma rheology.

Volcanic Eruption-Induced Tsunami in Indonesia: A Review

Tsunami, as a secondary hazard, can be triggered by tectonic earthquakes with its epicenter in the ocean floor, submarine volcanic eruptions, submarine landslides, meteor, or bomb at the ocean. Although volcanic eruption-induced tsunami events rarely happen, however, some events ever had a major impact, e.g., the 1741 CE eruption of Oshima-Oshima Volcano in Japan, the 1792 CE of dome collapse of the Mayuyama volcano in Japan, and the 1883 CE of Krakatoa tsunami in Indonesia. This review represents a brief database of the volcanic eruption-induced tsunami in Indonesia during the Holocene era. The largest historical tsunami due to volcanic activities happened in the 1883 CE in South Lampung. Pyroclastic flows from Krakatoa eruption reached the sea and triggered a tsunami with a run-up of 41.00 m, resulting in 36,000 death tolls. With this review, the purpose is to improve our knowledge of tsunami hazard and risk in Indonesia, especially those caused by volcanic activities, since Indonesia is known as a volcano-rich country, with more than 130 active volcanoes from a total of 400 volcanoes.

The Ocean Observatories Initiative

The Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) is an integrated network that enables scientific investigation of interlinked physical, chemical, biological and geological processes throughout the global ocean. With near real-time data delivery via a common Cyberinfrastructure, the OOI instruments two contrasting ocean systems at three scales. The Regional Cabled Array instruments a tectonic plate and overlying ocean in the northeast Pacific, providing a permanent electro-optical cable connecting multiple seafloor nodes that provide high power and bandwidth to seafloor sensors and moorings with instrumented wire crawlers, all with speed-of-light interactive capabilities. Coastal arrays include the Pioneer Array, a relocatable system currently quantifying the New England shelf-break front, and the Endurance Array, a fixed system off Washington and Oregon with connections to the Regional Cabled Array. The Global Arrays host deep-ocean moorings and gliders to provide interdisciplinary measurements of the water column, mesoscale variability, and air-sea fluxes at critical high latitude locations. The OOI has unique aspects relevant to the international ocean observing community. The OOI uses common sensor types, verification protocols, and data formats across multiple platform types in diverse oceanographic regimes. OOI observing is sustained, with initial deployment in 2013 and 25 years of operation planned. The OOI is distributed among sites selected for scientific relevance based on community input and linked by important oceanographic processes. Scientific highlights include real-time observations of a submarine volcanic eruption, time-series observations of methane bubble plumes from Southern Hydrate Ridge off Oregon, observations of anomalous low-salinity pulses off Oregon, discovery of new mechanisms for intrusions of the Gulf Stream onto the shelf in the Middle Atlantic Bight, documentation of deep winter convection in the Irminger Sea, and observations of extreme surface forcing at the most southerly surface mooring in the world ocean.

Acoustic evidence of a long-lived gas-driven submarine volcanic eruption in the Bismarck Sea

Acoustic evidence of a long-lived gas-driven submarine volcanic eruption in the Bismarck Sea

A Recent Volcanic Eruption Discovered on the Central Mariana Back-Arc Spreading Center

Submarine volcanic eruptions are difficult to detect because they are hidden from view at the bottom of the ocean and far from land-based sensors. However, most of Earth’s volcanic activity is in the oceans along tectonic plate boundaries, and modern tools of oceanography now allow us to find and study recent eruptions in the deep sea. The first known historical eruption on the Mariana back-arc spreading center was discovered in December 2015 during exploration of the southern back-arc for new hydrothermal vent sites. A water-column survey along the axis of the back-arc showed hydrothermal plumes over the site characterized by low particle concentrations and relatively high reduced chemical anomalies. A dive with the autonomous underwater vehicle Sentry collected high-resolution (1 m) multibeam sonar bathymetry over the site, followed by a near-bottom photographic survey of a smaller area. The photo survey revealed the presence of a pristine, dark, glassy lava flow on the seafloor with no sediment cover. Venting of milky hydrothermal fluid indicated that the lava flow was still warm and therefore very young. A comparison of multibeam sonar bathymetry collected by R/V Falkor in December 2015, to the most recent previous survey of the area by R/V Melville in February 2013, revealed large depth changes in the same area, effectively bracketing the timing of the eruption within a window of less than 3 years. The bathymetric comparison shows the eruption produced a string of lava flows with maximum thicknesses of 40–138 m along a distance of 7.3 km (from latitude 15∘22.3′ to 15∘26.3′N) between depths of 4050–4450 m bsl (meters below sea level), making this the deepest known historical submarine volcanic eruption on Earth. The cross-axis width of the lava flows is 200–800 m. The Sentry bathymetry shows that the new lava flows are constructed of steep-sided hummocky pillow mounds and are surrounded by older flows with similar morphology. In April and December 2016, two dives were made on the new lava flows by remotely operated vehicles Deep Discoverer and SuBastian. The pillow lavas have many small glassy buds on the steep flanks of the mounds, locally thick accumulations of hydrothermal sediment near the tops of mounds, and small cones of radiating pillows at their summits. The 2015–2016 observations show a rapidly declining hydrothermal system on the lava flows, suggesting that the eruption had occurred only months before its discovery in December 2015. The morphology of the pillow lavas is similar to other historical eruption sites, so the greater depth and ambient pressure of this site had no apparent effect on the processes of lava extrusion and emplacement. This study reveals that some segments of the Mariana back-arc have active magmatic systems despite the relatively low spreading rate, and that other eruptions are possible in the near future.

Dynamics of a powerful deep submarine eruption recorded in H2O contents and speciation in rhyolitic glass: The 2012 Havre eruption

Constraining the syn-eruptive volatile contents of magmatic melt is critical to understanding the intensities and styles of deep submarine volcanic eruptions, for which direct observations are scarce. Quantifying residual magmatic water contents in volcanic glass is complicated by rehydration, i.e., late-stage addition of molecular water. The 2012 deep submarine silicic eruption of Havre volcano provides an unusual opportunity to quantify glass water contents from a recent, well-sampled stratigraphic sequence. Fourier-transform infrared and microRaman spectroscopy measurements of water concentration and water speciation across the Havre 2012 eruptive sequence reveal an unanticipated range of excess molecular water within pumice. This excess water requires rapid timescales of diffusion that are inconsistent with our current understanding of low temperature secondary rehydration in both subaerial and subaqueous eruptive products. Diffusion models applied to enrichment profiles at vesicle edges confirm that low temperature rehydration is an unlikely cause. We instead support higher temperature, syn-eruptive pumice rehydration by condensed magmatic water and seawater in a submarine plume. Hydroxyl concentrations suggest shallow quenching depths of Havre pumice hundreds of meters above the 900-meter-deep main vent. Our data also support the presence of a vapor-rich plume and consequent modification of ocean pressure above the vent. We combine this novel volatile data with textural information and cooling rate calculations to explore the conditions that would cause slower, shallow cooling of clasts from a deep submarine eruption. By exploring the physical conditions for the interaction between pumice and submarine plumes, we emphasize fundamental differences between subaerial and submarine clast-producing eruptions.

Lack of impact of the El Hierro (Canary Islands) submarine volcanic eruption on the local phytoplankton community

The eruption of a submarine volcano south of El Hierro Island (Canary Islands) in October 2011 led to major physical and chemical changes in the local environment. Large amounts of nutrients were found at specific depths in the water column above the volcano associated with suboxic layers resulting from the oxidation of reduced chemical species expelled during the eruptive phase. It has been suggested that the fertilization with these compounds enabled the rapid restoration of the ecosystem in the marine reserve south of the island once the volcanic activity ceased, although no biological evidence for this has been provided yet. To test the biological fertilization hypothesis on the pelagic ecosystem, we studied the evolution and variability in chlorophyll a, from in situ and remote sensing data, combined with information on phytoplankton and bacterial community structure during and after the eruptive episode. Remote sensing and in situ data revealed that no phytoplankton bloom took place neither during nor after the eruptive episode. We hypothesize that the fertilization by the volcano did not have an effect in the phytoplankton community due to the strong dilution of macro- and micronutrients caused by the efficient renewal of ambient waters in the zone.

Serreta 1998–2001 submarine volcanic eruption, offshore Terceira (Azores): Characterization of the vent and inferences about the eruptive dynamics

High-resolution bathymetric data and seafloor sampling were used to characterize the most recent volcanic eruption in the Azores region, the 1998–2001 Serreta submarine eruption. The vent of the eruption is proposed to be an asymmetric topographic high, composed of two coalescing volcanic cones, underlying the location where lava balloons had been observed at the sea surface during the eruption. The volcanic products related to the 1998–2001 eruption are constrained to an area of ~0.5 km2 around the proposed vent position. A submarine Strombolian-style eruption producing basaltic lava balloons, ash and coarse scoriaceous materials with limited lateral dispersion led to the buildup of the cones. The 1998–2001 Serreta eruption shares many similarities with other intermediate-depth lava balloon-forming eruptions (e.g., the 1891 eruption offshore Pantelleria and the 2011–2012 eruption south of El Hierro), revealing the particular conditions needed for the production of this unusual and scarcely documented volcanic product.

Influence of the submarine volcanic eruption off El Hierro (Canary Islands) on the mesopelagic cephalopod's metal content

This work investigates whether a submarine volcanic eruption off El Hierro (Canary Islands) in October 2011 influenced the metal contents of two deep water cephalopod species: Abraliopsis morisii and Pyroteuthis margaritifera. This was assessed by comparing metal contents in specimens collected off the island of El Hierro and in the neighbouring islands of La Palma and Tenerife during an experimental deep water fishing trip. The concentration of 20 heavy metals was analyzed in 180 specimens of A. morisii and P. margaritifera collected around the three islands to test for inter-island differences for each species and metal. While both species showed geographical differences in metal concentrations, the main finding was that A. morisii could be a bioindicator species for metals such as Li, Sr and Ca.

Noble gas signals in corals predict submarine volcanic eruptions

Abstract Deep-water corals growing in close proximity to the 2011 submarine eruption at Tagoro (El Hierro Island; Canary Archipielago, Spain) have revealed their ability to record the magmatic helium ( 3 He) signal during a period of months prior to the eruption with magmatic 3 He/ 4 He ratios of 3.6–5.0 R A This is similar to the range of He isotope values (3–10 Ra) obtained from olivine samples from basinites erupted during the 2011 Tagoro eruption. Whip-like black corals (Anthozoa: Antipatharia: Antipathidae: Stichopathes ) growing on basaltic rocks trapped 3 He within their skeletons. We used a theoretical growth rate to estimate the time of trapping of 3 He between release from the magmatic source at depth to trapping by the aquatic organisms. Our findings suggest that magmatic 3 He emission occurred a few months before the beginning of the seismic activity in the region, the latter occurring four months in advance of the beginning of the eruption. This discovery implies that corals living in submarine volcanic areas may act as archives of noble gases released before the beginning of an eruption, and that the continuous monitoring of 3 He may help to constrain the arrival time of a subaqueous eruption with potential applications in volcano eruption forecasting.

A submarine volcanic eruption leads to a novel microbial habitat.

Submarine volcanic eruptions are major catastrophic events that allow investigation of the colonization mechanisms of newly formed seabed. We explored the seafloor after the eruption of the Tagoro submarine volcano off El Hierro Island, Canary Archipelago. Near the summit of the volcanic cone, at about 130 m depth, we found massive mats of long, white filaments that we named Venus's hair. Microscopic and molecular analyses revealed that these filaments are made of bacterial trichomes enveloped within a sheath and colonized by epibiotic bacteria. Metagenomic analyses of the filaments identified a new genus and species of the order Thiotrichales, Thiolava veneris. Venus's hair shows an unprecedented array of metabolic pathways, spanning from the exploitation of organic and inorganic carbon released by volcanic degassing to the uptake of sulfur and nitrogen compounds. This unique metabolic plasticity provides key competitive advantages for the colonization of the new habitat created by the submarine eruption. A specialized and highly diverse food web thrives on the complex three-dimensional habitat formed by these microorganisms, providing evidence that Venus's hair can drive the restart of biological systems after submarine volcanic eruptions.

Marine microbial ecology: Life after volcanic destruction.

Destruction of seafloor habitat following a submarine volcanic eruption facilitates construction and recolonization by an intriguing new bacterial species.

Balloons of Lava Bubble into the Ocean from Seafloor Blisters

These peculiar features of submarine volcanic eruptions could be the result of undersea lava lakes.

Genesis and prospecting perspective of Xianglushan iron deposit, Sichuan Province, China

More than 30 ore bodies have currently been discovered in the Xianglushan iron deposit in the central part of the Huili–Dongchuan Aulacogen. The main orebody is stratiform or stratoid within the volcanic sedimentary metamorphic rock of the Paleo–Mesoproterozoic Yinmin formation. Minor ores intrude as veins in the country rock and the mineral components of the iron ore are mainly magnetite and hematite. The ore evolved through the Paleo– Mesoproterozoic submarine volcanic eruption deposition period and the Neoproterozoic iron slurry superimposed transformation, and is identified as a sedimentation–transformation-type deposit. A study is conducted on the regional metallogenic background and geological characteristics of the ore deposit; results show that the ore-forming setting of the Xianglushan iron ore is excellent and that the potential of finding large-scale rich iron deposit is considerable.

The architecture of submarine monogenetic volcanoes – insights from 3D seismic data

AbstractMany prospective sedimentary basins contain a variety of extrusive volcanic products that are ultimately sourced from volcanoes. However, seismic reflection‐based studies of magmatic rift basins have tended to focus on the underlying magma plumbing system, meaning that the seismic characteristics of volcanoes are not well understood. Additionally, volcanoes have similar morphologies to hydrothermal vents, which are also linked to underlying magmatic intrusions. In this study, we use high resolution 3D seismic and well data from the Bass Basin, offshore southern Australia, to document 34 cone‐ and crater‐type vents of Miocene age. The vents overlie magmatic intrusions and have seismic properties indicative of a volcanic origin: their moderate–high amplitude upper reflections and zones of “wash‐out” and velocity pull‐up beneath. The internal reflections of the vents are similar to those found in lava deltas, suggesting they are composed of volcaniclastic material. This interpretation is corroborated by data from exploration wells which penetrated the flanks of several vents. We infer that the vents we describe are composed of hyaloclastite and pyroclasts produced during submarine volcanic eruptions. The morphology of the vents is typical of monogenetic volcanoes, consistent with the onshore record of volcanism on the southern Australian margin. Based on temporal, spatial and volumetric relationships, we propose that submarine volcanoes can evolve from maars to tuff cones as a result of varying magma‐water interaction efficiency. The morphologies of the volcanoes and their links to the underlying feeder systems are superficially similar to hydrothermal vents. This highlights the need for careful seismic interpretation and characterization of vent structures linked to magmatic intrusions within sedimentary basins.

Multiple ash layers in late Quaternary sediments from the Central Indian Basin

We have investigated three sediment cores collected from water depths >5000m along the transect 76°30′E in close proximity to a fracture zone in the Central Indian Basin (CIB). The cores yielded five volcanic horizons of which four have visual and dispersed shards. Rhyolitic glass shards of bubble wall, platy, angular and blocky types were retrieved from various stratigraphic horizons in the cores. The abundance of glass shards, composition of bulk sediments, and 230Thexcess ages of the host sediments were used to distinguish the volcanic horizons. Of the four volcanic horizons, three are now newly reported and correspond to ages of ~85, 107–109 and 142–146ka while the fourth horizon is of 70–75ka. By using trace element ratios and Cr and Nb-based normative calculations, cryptotephra has been identified for the first time from the CIB sediment. The cryptotephra forms the fifth ash horizon and is of ~34ka.A comparison with the published data on volcanic tephra in and around the Indian Ocean indicate the shard rich horizon (SRH) of 70–75ka to resemble the Younger Toba Tuffs (YTT), while the other volcanic horizons that were deposited during different time periods do not correlate with any known marine or terrestrial records. These tephra layers have produced a tephrostratigraphic framework across the tectonically and volcanically complex regions of the CIB. Due to the lack of terrestrial equivalents of these tephra, it is hypothesized that the newly found volcanic horizons may have been derived from submarine volcanic eruptions. Multiple layers of submarine volcaniclastic deposits found at water depths as great as 5300m reaffirm the growing belief that submarine phreatomagmatic eruptions are much more common in the intraplate region of the Indian Ocean than previously reported.

Earthquake swarms reveal submarine magma unrest induced by distant mega-earthquakes: Andaman Sea region

Little is known about earthquake-triggered magma intrusions or eruptions of submarine volcanoes. The analysis of teleseismic earthquake occurrence performed in this study offers a tool to address such enigmatic and inaccessible processes. In the past ten years, the Andaman Sea region repeatedly became a site of shallow earthquake swarms that followed distant mega-earthquakes by days to weeks. The MW 9.1 December 26, 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake was followed by two earthquake swarms about 600km northward in the Andaman Sea region, delayed by 30 and 35days, respectively. Earthquakes of one of these seismic episodes, the extensive January 2005 earthquake swarm, migrated laterally at a rate of about 0.25km per hour during the swarm evolution. The strong Indian Ocean MW 8.6 and 8.2 April 11, 2012 earthquake doublet west of Northern Sumatra was followed by an earthquake swarm approximately 800km northward in the Andaman Sea region, delayed by 13days. All the three swarms that followed the 2004 and 2012 mega-earthquakes occurred beneath distinct seamounts and seafloor ridges. Based on the observations of migration of earthquakes during the swarm and swarm occurrence beneath distinct highs at the seafloor, we conclude that these earthquake swarms probably resulted as a consequence of magma unrest induced by static and/or dynamic stress changes following the distant mega-earthquakes. Repeated occurrence of such a phenomenon suggests that the arc magma reservoirs beneath the Andaman Sea have recently reached some form of criticality and are vulnerable to even small stress changes. The Andaman seafloor could thus become a site of submarine volcanic eruptions in near future and deserves close attention of Earth scientists.