Use Of Subjunctive Research Articles

Sociolinguistic variation, or lack thereof, in the use of the Italian subjunctive: mood selection with factive and semi-factive governors

Abstract This paper deals with various aspects of the use of the subjunctive in spoken Italian. Firstly, a brief overview is provided of the interplay of linguistic and extra-linguistic factors underlying the selection of the subjunctive in various syntactic structures. Special attention is paid to the differences in subjunctive use in factual and non-factual contexts, pointing out that the former are less studied and less affected by normative injunctions than the latter. The focus then falls on factual contexts, in particular subordinate clauses which depend on factive and semi-factive governors. The investigation is based on KIParla, a corpus of spoken Italian consisting of different types of interactions with speakers of various origins and social backgrounds. It is argued that in the factual context at hand the subjunctive fulfills a specific set of functions, mostly related to the speaker’s stance towards the content of the subordinate clause. Finally, a statistical analysis is performed using conditional inference trees and random forests in order to uncover the linguistic and extra-linguistic conditioning of subjunctive use. The analysis shows that in the context under observation it is only linguistic factors that significantly condition mood selection; the use of the subjunctive is substantially insensitive to socio-stylistic and geographic variation, and therefore a socially shared pattern of variation has emerged.

Lexicalization and Social Meaning of the Italian Subjunctive

The usage of the Italian subjunctive, particularly in the context of embedded completive clause, can be considered a normative linguistic stereotype par excellence, to which speakers should pay particular attention if they want to speak ‘properly’. However, despite the massive effort of the normative enterprise, as well as the much scholarly attention garnered from linguists, overall consensus on what exactly constrains mood selection in discourse is not unanimous: whether it makes a semantic contribution, which verbs should trigger it, whether it signals more careful style. Grammarians are also concerned with the attrition of the subjunctive and its productivity in speech, fearing the loss of its supposed semantic contribution. Several studies have addressed these issues, but only a small amount of this body of work on Italian subjunctive has utilized a quantitative method and these assumptions have not been evaluated systematically under an accountable empirical methodology. The findings of the present variationist investigation illuminate new evidence in the patterning of subjunctive use in community-based spontaneous speech data and refuting the claims that it is productive and semantically-motivated. The analysis reveals a lexically motivated pattern of variation, i.e., the use of the subjunctive is mainly restricted to a handful of main clause verbs and a single embedded verb. Systematic analysis also shows a correlation between subjunctive choice and higher level of education, a social meaning that further strengthens the idea that no semantic contribution is made when the speaker opts for the subjunctive over the indicative, a phenomenon that is inherently variable.

Re-examining the role of mood selection type in Spanish heritage speakers’ subjunctive production

Abstract Verbal morphology is a particularly vulnerable domain in the grammars of Spanish heritage speakers (HSs). Among the most frequently studied phenomena is mood selection, identified as a pervasive locus of variability that affects the production of subjunctive more prominently. The present article explores this area of research by examining the effects of mood selection type on HSs’ subjunctive use. In contrast with previous studies, this investigation controls for propositional modality, focusing its analyses on instances of obligatory and variable subjunctive selection within deontic predicates. Results from a production task revealed that, despite the presence of between-group differences driven by participants’ levels of proficiency, type of selection did not significantly modulate their rates of subjunctive use. These findings challenge previous claims about the extent to which this factor affects Spanish HSs’ performance, and highlight the importance of considering propositional modality when examining the acquisition of mood.

Be that as it may: The Unremarkable Trajectory of the English Subjunctive in North American Speech

AbstractThe English subjunctive has had a checkered history, ranging from extensive use in Old English to near extinction by Late Modern English. Since then, the mandative variant was reported to have revived, while the adverbial subjunctive continued to diminish. American English is heavily implicated in these developments; it is thought to be leading the revival of the former but lagging in the decline of the latter. Observing that most references to these changes are based on the written language, we examine the diachronic trajectory of the subjunctive in North American Englishspeech.Adopting a variationist perspective, we carried out systematic quantitative analyses of subjunctive use under hundreds of triggers. Results show that, despite the differences in their diachronic trajectories, today both types are not only extremely rare but heavily lexically constrained. We implicate violations of thePrinciple of Accountabilityin the disparities between the findings reported here and the consensus in the literature with respect to subjunctive use in North American English.

Uso del presente de subjuntivo en niños con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje

Background and objectiveSyntactic markers in Spanish to identify children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) have been described in several studies. Complex verbal morphology, such as the subjunctive, has been a sensitive area for these children. This study shows frequencies of subjunctive use in children with and without SLI. The study distinguishes six contexts in which the use of the subjunctive is required: when the verb in the main sentence expresses desire, indirect command, doubt, when it is an evaluative sentence with a copula and with time and purpose clauses. Materials and methodsWe studied 15children with SLI and 15children with typical development aged between 5;0 and 6;11 from central Mexico. The subjunctive was produced through an instrument created for the study in which the children completed sentences with verbal forms of the subjunctive and indicative from different types of sentences from a series of images. ResultsThe results showed a significant difference in subjunctive use between the children with impairment and the typically developed children. In addition, not all the structures that required the use of the subjunctive resulted in its being used with the same frequency: use with predicates of doubt and indirect commands was less frequent than adverbial and volitive use.

Mood selection in Yucatec Spanish: Veridicality as the trigger

Mood selection under doxastic, or belief, predicates in Spanish have been traditionally treated as cases of polarity subjunctive: affirmative predicates license the indicative and negated the subjunctive. In previous accounts of mood in Spanish, researchers (i.e. Haverkate, 2002; Quer, 1998; Mejías-Bikandi, 1998, 2016) argue that either subjunctive or indicative is felicitous under negation as mood in this environment is pragmatically motivated. Yucatec Spanish is a contact variety that allows the use of the subjunctive in both affirmative and negated doxastic predicates. I use Yucatec Spanish data to argue that mood is licensed by the speaker's epistemic uncertainty, not negation. As an alternative, I adopt the notion of (non)veridicality (Giannakidou, 1998, 2015; Giannakidou and Mari, 2020) and follow Mari's (2016) proposal of suppositional subjunctive selection to argue that mood is triggered by the evaluation of the proposition in Yucatec Spanish. When a speaker of Yucatec Spanish evaluates a proposition as nonveridical, she recognizes the possibility that the proposition could be either true or false. In such cases, the speaker selects the subjunctive in the embedded clause regardless of the presence or absence of negation. Other nonveridical environments (i.e. interrogatives and modals) are also briefly discussed as both license higher rates of subjunctive use in Yucatec Spanish.

Comment Clauses and mood choice in New York City Spanish

AbstractThis paper focuses on Spanish grammatical mood variation in Comment Clauses (e.g.,es mejor que no vayas(subjunctive) /vas(indicative) ‘it’s better you not go’) in the speech of two generations in New York City. The data come from 36 participants, 18 from each of two generational cohorts. Carried out within the variationist-sociolinguistic research paradigm, we test grammatical mood against eight variables, four external (generation, region, speaker sex, language skill) and four internal (grammatical tense, clause type, lexical identity, negation). Statistical findings reveal that generation significantly conditions subjunctive use (the first generation has a significantly higher rate of use of subjunctive forms than does the second generation); English skill conditions first-generation subjunctive use (those with ‘good or excellent’ English skills have a higher subjunctive rate than those with ‘fair or poor’ English skills); clause type conditions both generations’ subjunctive use (impersonal constructions yield a higher subjunctive rate than personal constructions); lexical identity and negation in the matrix clause both condition first-generation use of mood (gustar‘to like’ favors the indicative;importar‘to be important’ andser+ impersonal expression ‘to be’ both favor the subjunctive). Generational differences are thus observed with respect to both social and linguistic conditioning factors.

Mood Selection in Relative Clauses by French–Spanish Bilinguals: Contrasts and Similarities between L2 and Heritage Speakers

In this paper, we explore three issues related to the acquisition of mood selection in Spanish relative clauses by second language (L2) and heritage (HL) speakers of Spanish: (1) whether HL speakers are more native-like than L2 learners; (2) whether the speakers’ performance differs depending on task modality (written vs. oral), since HL speakers are known to perform better in oral tasks and L2 learners tend to do better in written tasks; and (3) whether knowledge of French as an L1/dominant language (DL) has an impact on the acquisition of Spanish subjunctive, since both languages include this mood in their grammars, but it is used more productively in Spanish. Results from a sentence combination felicity task (SCFT) in Spanish—in written and oral forms—and a written elicited production task (EPT) in French, administered to advanced L2 and HL speakers of Spanish whose L1/DL is French and two monolingual (Spanish and French) control groups, revealed that L2 learners pattern more closely with the control group than HL speakers in the SCFT, both written and orally. In the EPT, all bilingual speakers display higher levels of subjunctive use than the control group, showing a potential influence from the L2/weaker language on the L1/DL.

The optional Spanish subjunctive mood grammar of New York City heritage bilinguals

Carried out within a variationist-sociolinguistic framework, this study seeks to gain a better understanding of the underlying mood grammar of second-generation heritage bilinguals in New York City (NYC). To that end, we compare optional subjunctive use in the speech of 26 second-generation heritage bilinguals to that of 26 of their first-generation counterparts. Based on usage patterns observed in both generations, a total of ten linguistic contexts are identified as subjunctive optional, i.e., where the subjunctive and the indicative alternate. Results stemming from quantitative analyses show that generation conditions optional subjunctive use, suggesting the presence of two distinct generational groups in our corpus. Furthermore, two internal variables are found to be statistically significant for both cohorts: linguistic context and rank order; whereas only one external variable is significant for the bilingual heritage speakers: level of English skill. Finally, we take a critical approach to challenge widely-accepted notions surrounding heritage languages, namely simplification, attrition and incomplete acquisition, concluding that all three lack the theoretical means to accurately describe the complex bilingual situation in NYC.

Subjunctive Use in the Speech of New York City Spanish Heritage Language Bilinguals

Through quantitative investigation, the present study considers the use of subjunctive verb forms in the speech of Spanish heritage language speakers in New York City. The data are from recorded conversations with 26 participants of Puerto Rican, Dominican, Mexican, Ecuadorian, Colombian and Cuban national origins. The purpose of this sociolinguistic study is to gain a comprehensive understanding of the mood grammar of NYC Spanish-English bilinguals in oral production. Results from statistical analyses show significant language-internal differences (e.g., context and rank order), but are null for all external variables, including national and regional grouping, suggesting a homogenous cohort with respect to mood selection. This study also explores inter- and intra-group variation, as well as a bilingual spectrum in which two individual participants demonstrate variable degrees of control with respect to grammatical mood.

Capaz and Quizás in Argentine Spanish: Epistemic Adverbs with Mood Variability

This article explores the use of two epistemic adverbs in Argentine Spanish, quizas and capaz . While scholars have noted the existence of capaz as an epistemic adverb, it had not been systematically studied prior to this investigation. To examine the epistemic stance of the adverbs, 117 participants completed an experimental sentence completion task in which mood selection (i.e., percentage subjunctive use) was measured. The dependent variables considered were situational certainty and temporal reference, as well as adverb. Situational certainty (certain, not certain) and temporal reference (future, present, past) were communicated in written discourse scenarios that preceded the sentence to be completed, and the certain or not certain status was verified through a norming procedure. Through a mixed model analysis, findings indicated that temporal reference was the only significant dependent variable. Mood selection was significantly different in contexts with future, present, and past temporal reference. Future temporal reference was associated with the greatest subjunctive use and past with the least subjunctive use. The findings were similar for sentences with capaz and quizas , indicating a similar epistemic stance based on current data.

Second-generation NYC bilinguals’ use of the Spanish subjunctive in obligatory contexts

This paper analyzes naturalistic data from second-generation NYC bilinguals on their obligatory subjunctive use. First-generation NYC Spanish speakers serve as the reference model for the nine obligatory semantic & syntactic contexts. A total of 52 consultants are considered, 26 for each generation, from the six primary Spanish-speaking groups in NYC: Puerto Rican, Dominican, Cuban, Mexican, Ecuadorian, and Colombian. The objective is to determine, through quantitative and qualitative investigation, whether the second-generation’s obligatory subjunctive use has changed, and if so, to establish exactly where and how it differs from the first-generation, thus contributing to the variationist-sociolinguistic knowledge of Spanish grammar in bilingual settings. Statistically significant external and internal findings show that the two generational groups do in fact use the obligatory subjunctive differently. Close examination, however, suggests that second-generation bilinguals generally command obligatory subjunctive use, but do exhibit signs of a variable mood grammar.

Subjunctive use and development in L2 French

We investigated the use and development of the Subjunctive in L2 French. Participants were 29 students of French at a UK university, who additionally spent nine months in France, and ten native speakers of French. Data were collected from two production tasks (oral and written) and a grammaticality judgement task. The results show that all participants made some use of the Subjunctive before leaving for France, with only limited development in its use during their stay. It is more frequently used in writing than in speech, consistent with French corpus-based research (O’Connor DiVito 1997). The judgement findings reveal significant differences between different Subjunctive triggers, with learners consistently better able to recognise affirmative triggers over conjunctions and negatives. Overall, it appears that affirmative Subjunctive triggers represent a key source of development, with most change evident for lower proficiency learners.

Frequency of Subjunctive Use in Oral Production in Two Varieties of Spanish

Abstract This research establishes an analysis of mood use in semi-spontaneous oral production in two varieties of Spanish. A total of 104 adult monolingual native speakers of Spanish participated in the study (N=56 from Rosario, Argentina and N=48 from Toledo, Spain). Data were collected by means of a guided oral elicitation task. Results indicated vitality of subjunctive use among older speakers (51-73 years old) in both regions. However, non-subjunctive forms were more frequent among younger speakers (18-30 years old) in Rosario, while speakers in Toledo still favored the use of present subjunctive. This tendency was also evident in middle-aged speakers. Overall, reduction of present subjunctive use among younger generations is more notorious in Rosario while subjunctive use appears more robust in Toledo.

Subjunctive use variation among monolingual native speakers of Spanish

Research conducted with monolingual native Spanish speakers has yielded discrepant results concerning the loss or maintenance of the subjunctive, whereas studies conducted with heritage speakers point to a gradual subjunctive loss (Montrul 2009; Mikulski 2010; Silva-Corvalán 1994a, 1994b, 2001). Cross-dialectal studies (Blake 1982; De Sterck 2000; Fernández Ulloa & Portillo Mayorga 2000; Menegotto 2003, 2004, 2008) have mainly focused on past tenses, and scarce are cross-dialectal studies investigating native speakers’ subjunctive use in the present tense. This study examines mood use by means of an acceptability test and a forced choice cloze test conducted by native speakers of two varieties of Spanish. One hundred and four adult monolingual native speakers of Spanish participated in the study — N = 56 from Rosario, Argentina and N = 56 from Toledo, Spain. Results indicate an overall vitality of the subjunctive and also reveal slight differences regarding acceptability based on gender and region.

Degrees of subjunctive vitality among monolingual speakers of Peninsular and Argentinian Spanish

This investigation seeks to expand the current understanding of mood use and vitality among monolingual native speakers of two varieties of Spanish. It focuses on establishing a cross-dialectal analysis of mood use in semi-spontaneous oral production. A total of 112 adult monolingual native speakers of Spanish participated in the study (N=56 from Rosario, Argentina and N=56 from Toledo, Spain). A controlled interview was administered to elicit the frequency and vitality of subjunctive use. Results indicate that the use of present subjunctive in complement clauses was found stable and vital among older speakers (51-73 years old) in both regions. However, while the youngest generation (18-30 years old) shows prevalence of non-subjunctive forms in Rosario, this age group favors the use of present subjunctive in Toledo. A similar pattern is observed with middle-aged participants. Results indicate an overall reduction of present subjunctive use among younger generations in Rosario, and vitality in every age group in Toledo.

Heritage and Foreign Language Learner Use of the Spanish Subjunctive in Advice

Previous research indicates that heritage language (HL) learners of Spanish tend to produce the subjunctive more than FL learners (e.g., Fairclough, 2005; Potowski, 2007). However, these studies have focused mainly on written production, and research on oral production has yielded contradictory findings (Fairclough, 2005; Lynch, 2008; Martínez Mira, 2006). This classroom-based research study (1) compares HL and FL learners’ subjunctive use and patterns of interlanguage mood choice in a paired oral activity in which students gave advice and (2) investigates whether learners negotiate meaning or form with each other in regard to mood selection. Twenty university students enrolled in fifth-semester Spanish (13 HL and 7 FL) were grouped into 7 HL-FL and 3 HL-HL pairs. Results indicate that HL learners were significantly more likely than their FL peers to produce the subjunctive in the structures where it was expected. HL and FL learners alike rarely negotiated for meaning or form with regard to mood choice.

Shortcuts in German Grammar: A Percentage Approach Phase 1: Adjective endings

German grammar is constantly perceived as difficult, a strong disincentive to learning the language, yet the underlying principles are basically simple. If applied consistently, using uncomplicated techniques based on the concept of markedness, German of a high level of accuracy can be produced. Starting with the unjustifiably much-feared adjective endings, this pilot scheme, funded with the help of the Challenge Fund of the University of Kent, demonstrates the principles of German word-order and the marking of case and gender and how, with some minor adjustment, the easily learnable der/die/das paradigm and the awareness that once this has been mastered and case and gender have already been marked, only one of the two unmarked endings -e or -en is required to give all the necessary patterns for producing correctly inflected adjective endings. If case and gender are not marked by an article the endings of der/ die/ das can with some slight modifications be added to the adjective. So with this easily acquired knowledge, adjective endings can be handled with confidence. On this basis the program, still a work in progress, offers a theoretical grounding couched in understandable terms, a terminological glossary and an easily accessible expandable set of technologically based exercises with extensive linked help functions. These can be used serially as an entire learning unit or selectively to enable students to put their knowledge into practice and improve their skill and success in German. Following this pilot, the approach is to be extended to other common grammatical problems, e. g. word order, passive (Zustands- vs. Vorgangspassiv), indirect speech, subordinate clauses, prepositions of movement and location, past tense forms and subjunctive use.

Receptive Volitional Subjunctive Abilities in Heritage and Traditional Foreign Language Learners of Spanish

The Spanish subjunctive has been known to pose difficulties for learners of Spanish whose native language is English (e.g., Collentine, 1997, 2003 ; Terrell, Baycroft, & Perrone, 1987 ). Investigating the same feature in heritage learners of Spanish can provide more information about the linguistic development of this growing population. This pilot study compared heritage and foreign language (FL) learners' ability to recognize native-like and nonnative-like mood choice in volitional constructions. Students enrolled in heritage and traditional FL Spanish courses at 3 universities in the Northeast completed a grammaticality judgment (GJ) task and an editing task, which contained examples of indicative, infinitive, and subjunctive use in volitional constructions. Heritage learners scored significantly higher on average than their FL peers on the editing, GJ, and combined (editing and GJ) tasks. These results suggest that home and community exposure play an important role in subjunctive acquisition and that instruction should be tailored to heritage learners' abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development of the Spanish Subjunctive by Advanced Learners: Study Abroad Followed by At‐Home Instruction

This study investigates whether or not abstract‐level linguistic features, not successfully acquired abroad, will be acquired once the advanced language learner returns from a study abroad program and is exposed to linguistic instruction. The goal of the study was to measure the development of the Spanish subjunctive in adverbial clauses collected via oral interviews among 24 learners who were exposed to advanced subjunctive instruction upon returning from a study abroad program, and to compare them to 19 learners who were exposed to advanced subjunctive instruction without ever having studied abroad. The results show a positive effect on the development of the Spanish subjunctive with linguistic instruction. However, those who had previous study abroad experience benefited even more from this instruction in that they produced more complex subjunctive‐related structures.