Subjective Experience Of Stress Research Articles

Physiological and psychological stress responses in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

According to self-report and unsystematic observational data adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder suffer from increased vulnerability to daily life stressors. The present study examined psychological and physiological stress responses in adult ADHD subjects in comparison to healthy controls under laboratory conditions. Thirty-six subjects (18 patients with DSM-IV ADHD diagnosis, 18 sex- and age-matched healthy controls) underwent the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST; Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K.-M., Hellhammer, D.H., 1993. The "Trier Social Stress Test"--a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology 28, 76-81), a standardized psychosocial stress protocol which contains a stress anticipation phase and a stress phase with a free speech assignment and subsequent performance of a mental arithmetic. Physiological stress measures were salivary cortisol as an indicator of the HPA axis, heart rate (HR), and time- and frequency-domain heart rate variability (HRV) parameters. Subjective stress experience was measured via self-report repeatedly throughout the experimental session. In line with previous theoretical and empirical work in the field of childhood ADHD, it was hypothesized that the ADHD and control group would exhibit comparable baseline levels in all dependent variables. For ADHD subjects, we expected attenuated responses of the physiological parameters during anticipation and presence of the standardized stressor, but elevated subjective stress ratings. Hypotheses were confirmed for the baseline condition. Consistent with our assumptions in regard to the psychological stress response, the ADHD group experienced significantly greater subjective stress. The results for the physiological variables were mixed. While ADHD subjects revealed an attenuated HR during the stress phase, no significant group differences were found for the other parameters, although a trend was observed for both the low frequency/high frequency (LF/HF) ratio of the HRV power spectral analysis and salivary cortisol (the latter possibly indicating generally lower cortisol levels in ADHD subjects). In summary, the present findings are the first to demonstrate a significant alteration of a specific physiological stress measure (HR) and, more clearly, of psychological aspects of the stress response in adults suffering from ADHD. In regard to the physiological stress response, it is recommended that future studies employ larger sample sizes and a more comprehensive range of physiological stress parameters. Additionally, the issue of transferability of laboratory results to real life stressors needs to be addressed.

Affective personality as cognitive-emotional presymptom profiles regulatory for self-reported health predispositions

Three studies that examined the links between affective personality, as constructed from responses to the Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) Scale (PANAS), and individuals' self-report of self-esteem, intrinsic motivation and Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) depression in high school students and persons in working occupations are described. Self-report estimations of several other neuropsychiatric and psychosocial variables including, the Uppsala Sleep Inventory (USI), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) test, Dispositional optimism, Locus of control, the Subjective Stress Experience test (SSE) and the Stress-Energy (SE) test, were also derived. Marked effects due to affective personality type upon somatic and psychological stress, anxiety and depression, self-esteem, internal and external locus of control, optimism, stress and energy, intrinsic motivation, external regulation, identified regulation, major sleep problems, problems falling asleep, and psychophysiological problems were observed; levels of self-esteem, self-motivation and BDI-depression all produced substantial effects on health and well-being. Regression analyses indicated PA was predicted by dispositional optimism (thrice), energy (thrice), and intrinsic motivation, and counter predicted by depression (twice) and stress (twice); and NA by anxiety (twice), stress (twice), psychological stress, identified regulation, BDI depression and psychophysiological problems, and counter predicted by internal locus of control and self-esteem. BDI-depression was predicted by negative affect, major sleep problems and psychophysiological problems (Study III), self-esteem by dispositional optimism and energy, and counter predicted by anxiety, depression and stress (Study I), and intrinsic motivation by dispositional optimism, energy, PA and self-esteem (Study II). These convergent findings are interpreted from a perspective of the cognitive-emotional expressions underlying behavioural or presymptomatic profiles presenting predispositions for health or ill health.

Catechol-o-methyltransferase polymorphism and susceptibility to major depressive disorder modulates psychological stress response

The stress response is related to both physiological and psychological factors and is strongly marked by a neuroendocrine component. Genetic factors are believed to underlie individual differences in the degree of stress resilience and thereby contribute in determining susceptibility to stress-related pathologies like major depressive disorder (MDD). Little, however, is known about the genetic influence on the endocrine and behavioural stress response in relation to MDD. Here, we sought to examine the effects of the catechol-o-methyltransferase polymorphism on psychological stress in three groups of individuals with different degrees of susceptibility to MDD (i.e. healthy controls, healthy high risk probands to MDD and those suffering from MDD). This genotype is involved in the metabolism of catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine). Allelic variations of this polymorphism were found to influence the degree of subjective stress experience and plasma epinephrine stress response. Interactions between catechol-o-methyltransferase polymorphism and diagnostic group in measures of plasma epinephrine, cortisol and subjective responses to psychological stress were also found, with the influence of the different alleles on these measures differing between healthy controls relative to MDD patients and high risk probands. These observations support a possible role for catechol-o-methyltransferase polymorphism in the endocrine and subjective response to psychological stress and thus may qualify as a possible candidate gene involved in the pathogenesis of MDD.

Depersonalization Experiences in Undergraduates Are Related to Heightened Stress Cortisol Responses

The relationship between dissociative tendencies, as measured with the Dissociative Experiences Scale and its amnesia, absorption/imaginative involvement, and depersonalization/derealization subscales, and HPA axis functioning was studied in 2 samples of undergraduate students (N = 58 and 67). Acute stress was induced by means of the Trier Social Stress Test. Subjective and physiological stress (i.e., cortisol) responses were measured. Individuals high on the depersonalization/derealization subscale of the Dissociative Experiences Scale exhibited more pronounced cortisol responses, while individuals high on the absorption subscale showed attenuated responses. Interestingly, subjective stress experiences, as indicated by the Tension-Anxiety subscale of the Profile of Mood States, were positively related to trait dissociation. The present findings illustrate how various types of dissociation (i.e., depersonalization/derealization, absorption) are differentially related to cortisol stress responses.

Health effects of annoyance induced by neighbour noise

Traffic noise (road noise, train noise, flight noise, noise of parking cars), is the most dominant source of annoyance in the living environment for many people living in European countries. This is followed by neighbour noise (neighbouring apartments, staircase, playing children and noise within the apartment). The subjective experience of noise stress can, through central nervous processes, lead to an inadequate neuro-endocrine reaction and finally to regulation diseases. Within the context of the WHO-LARES-survey, annoyance induced by neighbour noise was collected and evaluated in connection with reported medically diagnosed illnesses. Adults who indicated chronically severe annoyance by neighbour noise were found to have an increased health risk in the cardio-vascular system, the movement apparatus, as well as increased risk of depression and migraine. With regards to elderly people there is generally a lower risk of noise annoyance induced illness than in other adults. It can be assumed that the effect of noise induced annoyance in older people is concealed by health consequences of age (with a strong increase of illnesses). With children, the effect of noise induced annoyance from neighbour noise is most evident in the respiratory system. The increased illness risks in the respiratory system in children do not seem to be caused primarily by air pollutants, but rather, as a result of emotional stress. Neighbour noise induced annoyance is therefore a highly underestimated risk factor for healthy housing.

Noise-induced annoyance and morbidity results from the pan-European LARES study

Traffic noise (road noise, railway noise, aircraft noise, noise of parking cars), is the most dominant source of annoyance in the living environment of many European countries. This is followed by neighbourhood noise (neighbouring apartments, staircase and noise within the apartment). The subjective experience of noise stress can, through central nervous processes, lead to an inadequate neuro-endocrine reaction and finally lead to regulatory diseases. Within the context of the LARES-survey (Large Analysis and Review of European housing and health Status), noise annoyance in the housing environment was collected and evaluated in connection with medically diagnosed illnesses. Adults who indicated chronically severe annoyance by neighbourhood noise were found to have an increased health risk for the cardiovascular system and the movement apparatus, as well as an increased risk of depression and migraine. Furthermore adults with chronically strong annoyance by traffic noise additionally showed an increased risk for respiratory health problems. With regards to older people both neighbourhood and traffic noise indicated in general a lower risk of noise annoyance induced illness than in adults. It can be assumed that the effect of noise-induced annoyance in older people is concealed by physical consequences of age (with a strong increase of illnesses). With children the effects of noise-induced annoyance from traffic, as well as neighbourhood noise, are evident in the respiratory system. The increased risk of illness in the respiratory system in children does not seem to be caused primarily by air pollutants, but rather, as the results for neighbourhood noise demonstrate, by emotional stress.

Lumbar position sense acuity during an electrical shock stressor

BackgroundOptimal motor control of the spine depends on proprioceptive input as a prerequisite for co-ordination and the stability of the spine. Muscle spindles are known to play an important role in proprioception. Animal experiments suggest that an increase in sympathetic outflow can depress muscle spindle sensitivity. As the muscle spindle may be influenced by sympathetic modulation, we hypothesized that a state of high sympathetic activity as during mental stress would affect the proprioceptive output from the muscle spindles in the back muscles leading to alterations in proprioception and position sense acuity. The aim was to investigate the effect of mental stress, in this study the response to an electrical shock stressor, on position sense acuity in the rotational axis of the lumbar spine.MethodsPassive and active position sense acuity in the rotational plane of the lumbar spine was investigated in the presence and absence of an electrical shock stressor in 14 healthy participants. An electrical shock-threat stressor lasting for approximately 12 minutes was used as imposed stressor to build up a strong anticipatory arousal: The participants were told that they were going to receive 8 painful electrical shocks however the participants never received the shocks. To quantify the level of physiological arousal and the level of sympathetic outflow continuous beat-to-beat changes in heart rate (beats*min-1) and systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressure (mmHg) were measured. To quantify position sense acuity absolute error (AE) expressed in degrees was measured. Two-way analysis of variance with repeated measurements (subjects as random factor and treatments as fixed factors) was used to compare the different treatments.ResultsSignificant increases were observed in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate during the stress sessions indicating elevated sympathetic activity (15, 14 and 10%, respectively). Despite pronounced changes in the sympathetic activity and subjective experiences of stress no changes were found in position sense acuity in the rotational plane of the lumbar spine in the presence of the electrical shock stressor compared to the control period.ConclusionThe present findings indicate that position sense acuity in the rotational plane of the spine was unaffected by the electrical shock stressor.

Mindfulness Meditation: A Path of Transformation & Healing

As nurses, we have the unique privilege of witnessing and nurturing the healing process of the whole person--mind, body, and spirit. Teaching mindfulness meditation is a nursing intervention that can foster healing. The consistent practice of mindfulness meditation has been shown to decrease the subjective experience of pain and stress in a variety of research settings. Formal and informal daily practice fosters development of a profound inner calmness and nonreactivity of the mind, allowing individuals to face, and even embrace, all aspects of daily life, regardless of circumstances. By emphasizing being, not doing, mindfulness meditation provides a way through suffering for patients, families, and staff. This practice allows individuals to become compassionate witnesses to their own experiences, to avoid making premature decisions, and to be open to new possibilities, transformation, and healing.

Cerebral tissue alterations and daily life stress experience in psychosis

Objective: To examine whether the total volumes of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), cerebral grey matter and white matter were correlated with the experience of environmental stress in daily life situations. Method: Twenty-seven patients with psychosis underwent magnetic resonance imaging scanning and a random time-sampling self-assessment technique (Experience Sampling Method) to determine subjective daily life stress experiences. Total cerebral tissue volumes were derived from an automated segmentation procedure. Results: CSF volume was positively associated with daily life event-related stress (β=0.016, P=0.002), while the association with total white matter was negative (β=−0.013, P=0.005). The effects were independent of each other and of total cerebral volume and other confounders. No large or significant association was found with grey matter volume. Conclusion: Subjective stress experience in daily life is associated with increased CSF and reduced white matter volumes in patients with psychosis, suggesting functional significance of these cerebral measures.

Using lifestyle and coping to reduce job stress and improve health in ‘at risk’ office workers

This study assessed the effectiveness of an intervention programme which employed previously identified lifestyle and coping strategies to reduce the subjective experience and effects of work-related stress. Employees (104) working in a government tax office with identified stress-related symptoms were randomized to enter an intervention group (52) or a control group (52). Pre- and post-programme questionnaire assessments of work-related stress, coping strategies, physical health and lifestyle as well as physiological assessments (blood pressure and body mass index) were used to evaluate changes following an 8-week programme implementation phase. The programme comprised four weekly workshops on stress and lifestyle education as well as stress-coping skills training, followed by individual counselling sessions and a personalized action plan. Control group members were offered the same programme after post-programme assessment. There were no statistically significant differences between the intervention and control groups for stress and health indicators at post-programme. A 12-week post-intervention follow-up showed reductions in perceived workplace (p<0.01) and home/work (p=0.05) stress. The data suggest that relatively short interventions with individual follow-up can reduce perceptions of stress even where workplace stressors have not changed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Subjective experiences of stress, workload, and bodily discomfort as a function of age and type of computer work. Sharit, J., Czaja, S. J., Nair, S. N., Hoag, D. W., Leonard, D. C., and Dilsen, E. K.: Work and Stress, 12 (2): 125-144, 1998(Abstracts of foreign literatures)

Subjective experiences of stress, workload, and bodily discomfort as a function of age and type of computer work. Sharit, J., Czaja, S. J., Nair, S. N., Hoag, D. W., Leonard, D. C., and Dilsen, E. K.: Work and Stress, 12 (2): 125-144, 1998(Abstracts of foreign literatures)

Subjective experiences of stress workload, and bodily discomfort as a function of age and type of computer work

An increasingly older workforce and a growing emphasis on jobs involving interaction with computers have resulted in a need to more carefully examine the relationship between ageing and computer-based work. In this study, a sample of 394 subjects ranging in age from 20-75 years performed a computer task across a 3-day period. Three different types of computer-based jobs (data entry, information retrieval, and accounts balancing) performed at three large US companies were simulated. Age differences in the subjective experience of stress, workload, and bodily discomfort were evaluated. The results indicated that age effects for these measures varied according to task. The older subjects perceived greater workload for the more mentally challenging problem-solving oriented accounts balancing task (Which involved a graphical user interface) than the younger participants, even with increased exposure to the task. However, the older subjects generally experienced less stress than the younger subjects on an information retrieval task that involved a more socially interactive telephone component. A positive relationship between the frustration component of workload and the measure of stress was also found, suggesting an important link between the constructs of stress and workload. Overall, the outcomes of this study provide important insights into design interventions intended to accommodate older as well as younger persons in the workforce.

Positive impact of prior military combat exposure on Terrorism Prevention work: Inoculation to stress

Forty-four Israeli security agents employed by the Israeli Government Terrorism Prevention Agency providing security services for the national Israeli airlines and the Israeli Consulate in Los Angeles were administered the Subjective Stress Experience Scale (SSES). This scale measures stress at terrorism-prevention work, past stress during combat exposure, and subjects’ most stressful life events. Results support the hypothesis that terrorism prevention personnel who are also combat veterans appraise their work as less stressful than their noncombat exposed counterparts. Combat veterans also rated their combat experience as significantly more stressful than prevention team member’s other stressful life events. Subjects presented a uniform stress- inoculation effect but, combat veterans of the prevention team were more stress-inoculated than their noncombat exposed counterparts.

Short-term reproducibility of a mental arithmetic stress test.

1. To evaluate the short-term reproducibility of heart rate, oscillometrically determined blood pressure, antecubital venous plasma catecholamine concentrations and subjective responses to strictly standardized mental arithmetic, we performed two identical tests 1 h apart in 14 young, healthy and normotensive male subjects (age 22-35 years). 2. Heart rate and blood pressure responses to the two stress tests were highly correlated, when expressed both as correlations between levels attained during stress (rs greater than 0.80 throughout) and as absolute reactivity measures (all rs greater than 0.75). Also, subjective stress responses were highly correlated, when considering both levels during stress and reactivity (r = 0.97 and r = 0.85, respectively). Stress levels of catecholamines were correlated, but the change scores (reactivity) were unrelated. 3. The measurement error SD for heart rate was 2.6 and 3.0 beats/min for reactivity and stress levels, respectively. The corresponding SD for blood pressure ranged between 2.7 and 4.4 mmHg. Subjective stress experience showed an SD of a similar magnitude. The responses of plasma catecholamine concentrations were subject to considerable variability. 4. It is concluded that haemodynamic and subjective stress responses and stress levels during the mental arithmetic stress test show acceptable reproducibility and high test-retest correlations. However, stress-induced changes in venous plasma catecholamine concentrations show low reproducibility.

Haemodynamic responses to psychosocial stress during the menstrual cycle.

1. The haemodynamic effects of hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle were examined in 11 normotensive women (age 20-46 years). The subjects were studied on days 2-8 (follicular phase) and days 18-26 (luteal phase) in a randomized order. A standardized mental stress test and a 24 h recording of ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate were performed. 2. Pre-stress resting levels of heart rate and blood pressure were similar during the two phases of the menstrual cycle. 3. During mental stress, the heart rate response was significantly greater during the luteal phase than during the follicular phase (14.7 versus 9.7 beats/min; P less than 0.05). 4. Blood pressure, plasma catecholamine concentrations and subjective stress experience increased significantly in response to stress, without any significant differences between the two phases. 5. During 24 h ambulatory monitoring, higher levels of systolic blood pressure and heart rate were observed in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase (P less than 0.005 and P less than 0.0001, respectively). 6. These data indicate that cyclic variations in female sex hormones not only affect systolic blood pressure and heart rate, but also alter the haemodynamic responses to psychosocial stress.

Chapter X SOCIAL FACTORS, STRESS EXPERIENCE, AND PERSONALITY TRAITS IN WOMEN WITH ISCHAEMIC HEART DISEASE, COMPARED TO A POPULATION SAMPLE OF WOMEN

Abstract. No significant differences in socio‐economic status were found between women with IHD and women in the general population. No correlation was found between status incongruity of husband and wife and ischaemic heart disease. Women who had four children or more were significantly over‐represented among those who had myocardial infarction and among those with ECG changes suggestive of ischaemic heart disease. Psychological stress, both when measured as psycho‐social stress factors and as subjective stress experience, was significantly more common in women with myocardial infarction and in women with angina pectoris than in women in the general population. Among personality traits assessed, the level of aggression and neurotic self‐assertiveness was significantly higher in women with myocardial infarction. Achievement and dominance displayed a tendency in the same direction but the differences did not reach statistical significance.