Subjective Loneliness Research Articles

Using machine learning to understand social isolation and loneliness in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and the community

Social disconnection, including objective social isolation and subjective loneliness, is linked to substantial health risks. Yet, little is known about the predictors of social disconnection in individuals with mental illness. Here, we used machine learning to identify predictors of social isolation and loneliness in schizophrenia (N = 72), a psychiatric condition associated with social disconnection. For comparison, we also included two other groups: a psychiatric comparison sample of bipolar disorder (N = 48) and a community sample enriched for social isolation (N = 151). We fitted statistical models of social isolation and loneliness within and across groups. Each model included five candidate predictors: social avoidance motivation, depression, nonsocial cognition, social anhedonia, and social cognition. The results showed that social anhedonia explained unique variance in social isolation and loneliness in all samples, suggesting that it contributes to social isolation and loneliness broadly. However, nonsocial cognition explained unique variance in social isolation only within schizophrenia. Thus, social anhedonia could be a potential intervention target across populations, whereas nonsocial cognition may play a unique role in determining social disconnection in schizophrenia.

Outcomes of elder abuse and neglect in Central Europe: exploring the link between EAN and well-being among non-institutionalized older adults

ABSTRACT Informed by existing gaps in the research of elder abuse and neglect (EAN) outcomes and very limited knowledge from Central-European cultural contexts, this paper analyzes the link between domestic-based EAN and three measures of well-being, namely subjective loneliness, sense of control over one’s life, and a broader outlook on life. To do this, we used recently (2022) collected EAN survey fielded among home-dwelling residents of the Czech Republic aged 65 + . The results show that there is a clear relationship between EAN and these selected outcomes. Controlling for several sets of potential modifying or confounding factors further indicates that this relationship is substantial and direct, rather than weak and indirect. Among controls, only variables related to disadvantage (health, income, dependency, history of abuse) partly account for the link between EAN and its outcomes due to their relation to both heightened risk of EAN and lower well-being.

Association between Levels of Loneliness, Laboratory Measurements, and Behavioral Aspects in a Primary Care Setting in Crete, Greece.

This paper examines potential associations of loneliness with laboratory data and specific psychosocial and behavioral attitudes. The sample collection took place in an urban Primary Health Care unit between May and July 2023, consecutively, and once exclusion criteria were implemented. Participants were aged between 40 and 75 years. Routine laboratory test results upon study initiation and six months before were used. The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Loneliness Scale (Version 3), blood glucose, serum lipids, Fibrosis-4 index, and Creatinine Clearance (CrCl) were assessed through hierarchical multiple logistic regression analysis. Based on full model (3rd) analysis, those who were engaged in an individual sport or activity or had contacts with more friends presented significantly lower odds for increased loneliness levels (odds ratio (OR): 0.28 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.09-0.91], p = 0.034 and OR: 0.76 [95%CI 0.66-0.88], p < 0.001, respectively). The consumption of alcohol was associated with increased loneliness (OR: 5.55 [95%CI 1.42-21.63], p = 0.014). Elevated triglyceride levels were linked with moderate or no loneliness (OR: 0.20 [95%CI 0.05-0.83], p = 0.026), while an increased LDL/HDL atherosclerotic index was related to increased subjective loneliness (OR: 4.50 [95%CI 1.12-18.13], p = 0.035). The need for holistic approaches-involving primary care personnel-in understanding and addressing loneliness, recognizing its multifaceted nature as well as the diverse factors that contribute to this issue, is considered challenging.

Married couples: The significance of psychological wellbeing and subjective loneliness for feelings of love

Married couples are attracting attention of psychologists. Generally, feelings of love are studied as a predictor, and psychological wellbeing as an effect of relationship satisfaction. Since feelings of love change in time, the purpose of this research is to study gender and age differences and identify predictors of love for spouse. Although relationship satisfaction probably is the strongest predictor of love, the psychological wellbeing and subjective loneliness also matters. 387 couples with marriage duration from six months to 50 years were studied. Methods: Rubin’s love and liking scale; Psychological wellbeing scale (Ryff), Loneliness scale (Russell et al.); self-report of relationship satisfaction with cognitive (satisfaction, desire to maintain marriage, divorce) and emotional (negative feelings, tension, fear of parting) issues. Dispersion, correlation, factorial and regression analysis were used. Results: Men’s love is stronger than women’s one and more stable throughout marriage. The lowest relationship satisfaction and the most pronounced love were found in 3–7 years of marriage. Common predictors of love for a partner are relationship satisfaction and the partner’s psychological wellbeing; a specific predictor for men is a low level of subjective loneliness, and for women it is the husband’s love for her, his subjective loneliness and her fear of parting. Spouses who express a desire to divorce are characterized by weak love for a partner, men are not satisfied with the relationship and both spouses have a reduced level of psychological wellbeing: women are not competent enough, men have difficulty setting life goals, and both partners have low self-acceptance.

Психологические аспекты восприятия субъективного одиночества (исследование на выборке граждан России)

The article presents the results of the study of perceptions of subjective loneliness by Russian citizens. The sampling included 146 people, 51 of whom were men and 95 women. The age of the respondents was 17-46, so the average age was 32. The content analysis method has revealed main criteria indicating that subjective loneliness is perceived as abandonment and powerlessness with negative emotions prevailing. Experiencing real loneliness, the subjects are prone to reflect about their immediate environment. Subjects’ thoughts of loneliness they are likely to experience in the future are associated with the feeling of fear and the urge to avoid possible loneliness. Reluctance to become aware of the causes behind the feeling of loneliness and the urge to avoid this feeling leads to greater negative feelings when respondents actually experienced it.

PERCEPTIONS OF THE ROLE STRUCTURE OF PARENTAL ANDANCESTRAL FAMILY IN WOMEN WHO EXPERIENCE SUBJECTIVE LONELINESS

The relevance of the study is determined by the importance of studying socio-psychological perceptions of the role structure of the parental and ancestral family in women who experience a high level of subjective loneliness to find scientifically grounded means of providing them with psychological help.

Severe and Frequent Loneliness Mars Adults with Hearing Loss

There is a high prevalence of hearing loss in community and need of research to address this gap into the health-related issues of hearing loss like loneliness, anxiety and depression, hence current study was conducted. Objective: To determine the subjective loneliness in adults with hearing loss and association with clinico-demographic variables. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at Isra University Islamabad, recruited N=377 patients with hearing loss utilizing convenience sampling from Sir Ganga Ram and Mayo Hospitals, Lahore, Pakistan from January 2020 to June 2020. The sample included both genders, aged 20 to 65 years with moderate to profound hearing loss of at least 1-year duration. The basic demographic sheet and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale Version 3 were used for data collection. Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 26 &amp; Chi-square was utilized for association with p&lt;0.05 taken to be significant. Results: Study revealed severe loneliness in 279(74%) and frequent loneliness in 98(26%). Severity categories of loneliness revealed association with age (p=0.049), gender (p=0.043), smoking (p=0.049), type of hearing loss (p&lt;0.001), degree of hearing loss (p=0.008), hearing aid use (p&lt;0.001), hours and days of hearing aid use (p&lt;0.001). Conclusions: It is concluded that hearing loss results in severe and frequent loneliness. Factors including age, gender, smoking, type of hearing loss, degree of hearing loss, hearing aid use, hours and days of hearing aid use are associated with loneliness in adult population of Punjab, Pakistan.

RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIAL SUPPORT AND SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT WITH COGNITION IN AN ETHNICALLY DIVERSE OLDER POPULATION

Abstract One quarter of older adults in the U.S. are socially isolated; far more experience subjective loneliness. The potentially negative effects of limited social support and social engagement pose a concern for maintaining the well-being of older individuals, including the effect on cognitive function. To test the hypothesis that cognitive function is associated with social support and social engagement, we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze data from an ethnically diverse sample (118 African American, 147 Afro-Caribbean, 133 Hispanic, and 235 European American) of 623 community-dwelling older adults age ≥ 65 (173 male, 450 female). Using the model proposed by Cenè et al. (2022), we conceptualized level of social support and engagement as the exposure, emotional state (anxiety, depression, general emotional well-being), and physical function (functional activity, life space, general physical function, and self-rating of health) as mediators and cognitive function as the outcome of interest. Statistically significant direct and indirect effects were found between the three latent variables (emotional state, physical function, and social support and social engagement), indicating that the level of social support and engagement the older individual is related directly and indirectly to cognition (β=-.75, SE=.49, p&amp;lt;.028; β=-0.08, SE=0.795, p=0.017). The SEM models showed goodness of fit with χ2/df=3.001, CFI=0.931, AGFI=0.966, SRMR=0.045, and RMSA=0.058, and explained 35.3% of the variability. These values support the hypothetical model. Results suggest the importance of maintaining existing social support and engagement activities as well as development and testing of approaches to increase social support and engagement in later life.

The Role of Social Isolation on Mediating Depression and Anxiety among Primary Family Caregivers of Older Adults: A Two-Wave Mediation Analysis

BackgroundPrimary family caregivers of older people with chronic care conditions are highly vulnerable to social isolation and psychological strains such as depression and anxiety due to their demanding responsibilities. This study examines how social isolation mediates the relationship between caregiving stress and mental health symptoms of primary family caregivers.MethodsThe analytic sample included 881 primary caregivers of older adults from the 2015 and 2017 National Study of Caregiving (NSOC). Social isolation was measured using a composite structure that includes objective social disconnectedness and subjective loneliness. Two-wave mediation models were estimated to examine longitudinally if social isolation mediated the relationship between caregiving stress (subjective & objective stress) and mental health symptoms (depression & anxiety) of primary caregivers.ResultsThe study findings indicate that both subjective (β = 0.32, p < 0.001) and objective stress (β = 0.21, p = 0.003) have direct effects on depression among primary caregivers. Social isolation was found to only mediate the relationship between objective stress and depression (β = 0.18, p < 0.001). In contrast, no significant direct and indirect pathway was found in the anxiety model.ConclusionsThe study demonstrates the internal mechanism where objective strains of caregiving make family caregivers socially isolated, which in turn leads to increased symptoms of depression. Future interventions and practices aimed at improving the psychological well-being of family caregivers should prioritize strategies aimed at increasing social engagement, particularly for those with heavy caregiver burdens.

Loneliness and social isolation are not associated with executive functioning in a cross-sectional study of cognitively healthy older adults

ABSTRACT The literature on the relationship between social interaction and executive functions (EF) in older age is mixed, perhaps stemming from differences in EF measures and the conceptualization/measurement of social interaction. We investigated the relationship between social interaction and EF in 102 cognitively unimpaired older adults (ages 65–90). Participants received an EF battery to measure working memory, inhibition, shifting, and global EF. We measured loneliness subjectively through survey and social isolation objectively through naturalistic observation. Loneliness was not significantly related to any EF measure (p-values = .13–.65), nor was social isolation (p-values = .11–.69). Bayes factors indicated moderate to extremely strong evidence (BF 01 = 8.70 to BF 01 = 119.49) in support of no relationship.. Overall, these findings suggest that, among cognitively healthy older adults, there may not be a robust cross-sectional relationship between EF and subjective loneliness or objective social isolation.

Psychological factors of subjective loneliness feelings in adolescents

This article investigates psychological causes of subjective loneliness feelings in adolescents. It presents a theoretical analysis of the loneliness phenomenon, as well as empirical research of this phenomenon in young people. The relevance of studying this psychological phenomenon is determined by the war in Ukraine, forced resettlement, and moving to a new city, or even to another country, distance learning, broken relationships and family separations, and the need to establish new social connections. Loneliness is often considered a problem of older generations, but under current conditions, it is adolescents who increasingly feel lonely. In addition to external objective reasons, individual factors may also affect the development of loneliness. Studying these factors allows for a more in-depth assessment of the scale of loneliness and creates a stronger basis for studying the phenomenon. The characteristics of adolescent loneliness stem from fundamental changes in the affective, motivational, and behavioral spheres of life and the impact of this state on socialization. The article discusses various theoretical approaches to the concept of loneliness in psychological research. The results indicate that the symptom complex of the loneliness concept includes a sense of psychological alienation, the inability to build normal relationships, and the inability to form strong attachments. The article considers three types of loneliness: chronic, situational, and temporary, and outlines characteristics of loneliness feeling experiences in adolescence. The article also identifies factors that influence the development of loneliness in adolescence. In addition, the article empirically studies psychological factors of subjective loneliness in adolescents, including personal and situational anxiety, indicators of aggressiveness, level of self-esteem, and level of sociability in adolescents.

Association Between Loneliness and Suicidal Behaviour: A Scoping Review.

Suicide is a public health issue, and there are several factors leading to suicide, like mental illness and psychosocial stressors. Actual loneliness (living alone) and subjective loneliness (feeling of being alone) and different suicidal behaviors have been reported to have some link. This scoping review aimed to assess the association between loneliness and suicidal behaviour by exploring the existing literature. A scoping review was conducted implementing the appropriate framework and in accord with the PRISMA-ScR extension. A PubMed database search was made using a combination of terms to find publications in English from 2011 to 2021. Studies were included if they reported quantitative outcomes of the association between loneliness and suicidal experiences, including suicidal thoughts, plans, and/or attempts. Screening and data charting of the published literature was conducted by a panel of authors. The accuracy and clarity of extracted data was checked by three reviewers. Among 421 articles found, 31 full texts were evaluated based on exclusion and inclusion criteria, out of which, 18 papers that reported quantitative outcomes of the association between loneliness and suicidal experiences were included. We found that association between loneliness and suicidal behaviour is determined by individual, social and cultural factors. Co-existing mental illness, substance use disorder and economic hardship play an important role for the completion of suicide. Loneliness is correlated with suicide, and the knowledge about this association could assist in the identification of suicidal individuals or those at elevated risk of suicidal behaviour. Future studies should focus on loneliness and its relation to suicidal ideation in individuals with different mental health disorders and personalities.

How Migration Status Shapes Susceptibility of Individuals' Loneliness to Social Isolation.

Objectives: Our research provides competing hypotheses and empirical evidence how associations between objectively social isolation and subjective loneliness differ between host populations, migrants, and refugees. Methods: The analysis uses data of 25,171 participants from a random sample of the German population (SOEP v.35). We estimate regression models for the host population, migrants, and refugees and test five hypotheses on the association between social isolation and loneliness using a Bayesian approach in a multiverse framework. Results: We find the strongest relative support for an increased need for social inclusion among refugees, indicated by a higher Bayes factor compared to the hosts and migrants. However, all theoretically developed hypotheses perform poorly in explaining the major pattern in our data: The association of social isolation and loneliness is persistently lower for migrants (0.15 SD-0.29 SD), with similar sizes of associations for refugees and the host population (0.38 SD-0.67 SD). Conclusion: The migration history must be actively considered in health service provision and support programs to better cater to the needs of the different groups.

Determinants of Subjective Loneliness and Quality of Life among Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Gorgan, Iran

Determinants of Subjective Loneliness and Quality of Life among Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Gorgan, Iran

Loneliness is associated with maladaptive schema modes in patients with persistent depressive disorder

ObjectivesThough loneliness represents a public health concern, this complex unpleasant feeling is commonly neglected in psychiatric care and may constitute a new treatment target in clinical groups particularly prone to feeling lonely and socially isolated, e.g., persistent depressive disorder (PDD). Schema modes encompass a set of distinct cognitive-affective patterns that may contribute to loneliness and social isolation. Aim of this study was to examine the interplay between subjective loneliness and objective social network size with schema modes in patients with PDD as well as healthy controls (HC). MethodSixty-two PDD patients (DSM-5; 35 female, Mage = 40.5, SD = 12.4) and 71 HC (60 female, Mage = 28.1, SD = 10.1) were assessed cross-sectionally using the following self-report measures: UCLA Loneliness Scale, Social Network Index (SNI), and Schema-Mode-Inventory, revised version (SMI-r). Correlational and multiple linear regression analyses were performed. ResultsPDD patients reported significantly higher scores of loneliness and maladaptive schema modes and a smaller social network than HC. Loneliness was significantly positively associated with the modes Vulnerable Child, Detached Protector, Bully and Attack, and Punitive Parent, and negatively with Contented Child and Healthy Adult in both groups. In contrast, social network size was only positively associated with the Contented Child mode. ConclusionLoneliness is highly prevalent in PDD and in contrast to social network size associated with maladaptive schema modes. Therapeutically addressing these schema modes with specific techniques may represent a mechanism-based intervention for patients suffering from loneliness and should be investigated in clinical trials.

Patterns of Internet Use, and Associations with Loneliness, amongst Middle-Aged and Older Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Loneliness among older adults is a major societal problem with consequences for health and wellbeing; this has been exacerbated by the coronavirus pandemic. The present study investigated associations between internet use, including frequency and type of use, and loneliness in a large UK sample of middle-aged and older adults, aged 55–75 (n = 3500) from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) cohort study. Our findings indicated a clear relationship between the frequency of internet use and subjective loneliness. Those who used the internet more than once a day reported feeling less lonely than those who used the internet once a week or less. We also found that those who used the internet for e-mail communication were less lonely. However, individuals indicated higher levels of loneliness when the internet was used for information searches about health. Regarding sociodemographic factors underlying internet usage, less frequent use was seen amongst individuals who lived alone, people who were not employed, who had lower education levels, and lower sociodemographic status. Additionally, gender differences were found in the type of internet use: males report using the internet for e-mail communication more than females, while females’ internet use for health-related information searches was higher than in males. In sum, findings suggest that intervention strategies that promote internet access amongst middle-aged and older people could be useful for tackling loneliness and point to the groups within society that should be the focus of such interventions.

0053 The Role of Social Isolation on Sleep Problems Interfering with Daily Functioning

IntroductionAmidst the COVID-19 pandemic, widespread feelings of social isolation have become more prevalent than ever before as lockdowns and social distancing measures led people to remain in their homes. The constructs of social isolation and loneliness are similar but reflect slightly different aspects of social experience. Social isolation reflects the amount of social contact a person experiences, whereas loneliness reflects the subjective experience of an emotional yearning for such contact. While is known that sleep problems have increased during the pandemic, there has been little research into the potential effects of social isolation on sleep problems. Here, we examined the influence of social isolation on the extent to which insomnia has interfered with daily life activities. We hypothesized that social isolation would contribute to greater disruption in daily functioning from insomnia, exclusive of the effects of loneliness.Methods13,298 English-speaking adults from across the U.S. (18-92 years old; 57.5% female) completed an online battery of assessments that included demographic questions, the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), and the UCLA Loneliness Scale – Version 3 between April 2020 and April 2021. Participants were grouped based on whether they felt “socially isolated” or not at the time of assessment. Social isolation groups were compared for the extent that insomnia interfered with daily functioning, while statistically controlling for loneliness.ResultsAfter controlling for loneliness, socially isolated individuals reported much greater daily interference from sleep problems, M=1.58, SD=1.19, compared to those who denied feeling socially isolated, M=0.96, SD=1.04, F(1,13295)=287.67, p=7.5x10-64.ConclusionSocial isolation during the pandemic was associated with significantly greater disruption of daily functioning due to sleep-related issues, even after adjusting for self-reported loneliness. Thus, feeling isolated and lacking social contact was related to functional degradation due to sleep problems. Prior evidence suggests that social isolation can have a dramatic negative impact on mental health and can lead to increased all-cause mortality, but these results suggest social isolation may also impact sleep health and functional outcomes (whether that be physical, cognitive, or psychological). Thus, being isolated during the pandemic was associated with greater degradation of functional outcomes of sleep, regardless of subjective loneliness.Support (If Any)

Satisfaction with Social Life and Academic Adaptation in Students with Different Types of Loneliness in the Process of Distance Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic

In an age when publicity is the norm, human loneliness is a significant socio-psychological problem. Objective loneliness (e.g., as experienced during the pandemic) does not always result in subjective loneliness. Subjective loneliness directly influences various aspects of the human psyche and activities. Analysis of satisfaction with social life, as a marker of social well-being and academic adaptation of students with different loneliness types, allows determining the magnitude of subjective loneliness and how it influences the well-being and adaptation of students. In this study, we analyzed satisfaction in social life, difficulties associated with distance learning, and academic adaptation in students with different types of loneliness. The sample consisted of 500 students who studied online during the COVID-19 pandemic. The mean age of the students was 19.28 years (SD = 2.16; 16.5% males and 83.5% females). The following methods were used in this study: A differential questionnaire on experiencing loneliness developed by Osin and Leontev; a modified technique for determining the level of social frustration by Wasserman, Iovlev, and Berebin; the academic adaptation scale by Shamionov, Grigoryeva, Grinina, and Sozonnik; scales for subjective evaluation of changes in life during distance learning developed by the authors of the study. Four types of loneliness were identified based on cluster analysis: positive loneliness, non-accepted loneliness, pseudo-positive loneliness, and neurotic loneliness. Students with pseudo-positive and neurotic loneliness had low levels of satisfaction with their social life, while students with positive loneliness, and those that rejected it, were satisfied with life. Distance learning was most positively viewed by students with a positive perception of loneliness, while students with neurotic loneliness experienced difficulties the most because of distance learning. Under such conditions, the most successful academic adaptation was observed in students with non-acceptance of loneliness, followed by students with positive and pseudo-positive loneliness, respectively, while students with neurotic loneliness adapted the least to the conditions.

Retrospective feelings of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic among residents of long-term care facilities

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has had an incisive effect on residents living in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). Local governments have introduced restrictive measures because of the danger posed by this virus. One increasing negative effect of these implementations among residents living in LTCFs is their subjective feelings of loneliness. This study assumed that these measures weighed heavily particularly on residents living in LTCFs, as this group of older people could not decide for themselves whether or how they should be implemented. Thus, this study investigated the retrospectively reported subjective loneliness of residents living in LTCFs. On a large-scale Swiss survey (N = 828; mean age: 87.78, 75% female), residents of 22 LTCFs filled out a questionnaire on their subjective feelings of loneliness during the pandemic. The retrospective loneliness scores of the residents living in LTCFs were found to exceed those reported in other studies focusing on community-dwelling older people. Multivariate regression analyses showed that females, individuals with lower values of joy in life and life satisfaction, and individuals who were not satisfied with the manner in which their care home coped with the COVID-19 measures significantly felt lonelier. Therefore, the subjective feelings of loneliness of residents in LTCFs should be monitored very carefully. As the measures have still not been completely lifted, residents of LTCFs are assumed to still experience social isolation and be at high risk of encountering prolonged feelings of loneliness, which can be detrimental to their mental health and well-being.

The Microbiome and Mental Health Across the Lifespan.

The combined genetic material of the microorganisms in the human body, known as the microbiome, is being increasingly recognized as a major determinant of human health and disease. Although located predominantly on mucosal surfaces, these microorganisms have profound effects on brain functioning through the gut-brain axis. The content of the chapter is based on a study group session at the annual meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP). The objective was to discuss the emerging relationship between the human microbiome and mental health as relevant to ACNP's interests in developing and evaluating novel neuropsychiatric treatment strategies. The focus is on specific brain disorders, such as schizophrenia, substance use, and Alzheimer's disease, as well as on broader clinical issues such as suicidality, loneliness and wisdom in old age, and longevity. Studies of schizophrenia indicate that the microbiome of individuals with this disorder differs from that of non-psychiatric comparison groups in terms of diversity and composition. Differences are also found in microbial metabolic pathways. An early study in substance use disorders found that individuals with this disorder have lower levels of beta diversity in their oral microbiome than a comparison group. This measure, along with others, was used to distinguish individuals with substance use disorders from controls. In terms of suicidality, there is preliminary evidence that persons who have made a suicide attempt differ from psychiatric and non-psychiatric comparison groups in measures of beta diversity. Exploratory studies in Alzheimer's disease indicate that gut microbes may contribute to disease pathogenesis by regulating innate immunity and neuroinflammation and thus influencing brain function. In another study looking at the microbiome in older adults, positive associations were found between wisdom and alpha diversity and negative associations with subjective loneliness. In other studies of older adults, here with a focus on longevity, individuals with healthy aging and unusually long lives had an abundance of specific microorganisms which distinguished them from other individuals. Future studies would benefit from standardizing methods of sample collection, processing, and analysis. There is also a need for the standardized collection of relevant demographic and clinical data, including diet, medications, cigarette smoking, and other potentially confounding factors. While still in its infancy, research to date indicates a role for the microbiome in mental health disorders and conditions. Interventions are available which can modulate the microbiome and lead to clinical improvements. These include microbiome-altering medications as well as probiotic microorganisms capable of modulating the inflammation in the brain through the gut-brain axis. This research holds great promise in terms of developing new methods for the prevention and treatment of a range of human brain disorders.