Indian Subcontinent Research Articles

Epidemiologic pattern and factors associated with adverse outcomes of diabetic ketoacidosis in medical intensive care units of a tertiary care centre in India

AimDiabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a dreadful complication of diabetes mellitus characterized by a biochemical triad of hyperglycemia, ketosis, and metabolic acidosis. The clinic-epidemiologic pattern and outcomes of DKA in the Indian subcontinent are largely unexplored, yet understanding them is crucial for optimizing management strategies. MethodsA total of 138 patients admitted with a DKA diagnosis were reviewed retrospectively over two years. Patient demographics, clinical history, laboratory findings, precipitating factors, and intensive care management were extracted from case files. Clinical outcomes were classified as either discharge or death. Data analysis was performed using SPSSv29. ResultsThe mean age of the patients was 41.54 (16) years; 77 (55.79 %) were female, 56.52 % had type 1, 23.19 % had type 2, and 20.29 % had pancreatic diabetes. Non-compliance with infection (21.02 %), and pancreatitis (21.01 %) were common DKA triggers. Severity was assessed by pH, anion gap, and bicarbonate levels. The overall mortality rate was 11.59 %. Factors significantly associated with mortality included age >60 years, >3 previous DKA episodes, hypokalaemia, elevated serum creatinine, and altered sensorium. ConclusionThese findings emphasize the importance of demographics and risk factors in assessing DKA mortality risk, aiding early identification and targeted interventions for high-risk patients.

Large branchiopods (Anostraca, Notostraca, Laevicaudata, Spinicaudata) from the semi-arid regions of western India

Abstract Large branchiopod crustaceans are flagship species of temporary water bodies, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Less information is available about the large branchiopods of tropical Asia compared to other parts of the world such as the Americas. To reduce this disparity, we surveyed large branchiopods from the semi-arid region of Maharashtra state, India. Sampling at 29 sites over four years revealed nine species representing four orders. This is the highest diversity ever reported from a single regional study in India. Anostracans were the most commonly occurring group, whereas the spinicaudatans Leptestheria cf. nobilisSars, 1900, L. jaisalmerensisTiwari, 1962, and Eulimnadia michaeliNayar & Nair, 1968 were very rare. Leptestheria jaisalmerensis had been known previously only from its type locality nearly 1,200 km north of our study region. Congeneric assemblages of the anostracans Streptocephalus dichotomusBaird, 1860 + S. simplexGurney, 1906 and the spinicaudatans Leptestheria cf. nobilis + L. jaisalmerensis were collected. Temporary aquatic habitats are threatened due to adverse anthropogenic activities, especially in developing countries like India. The endemic species of large branchiopods in the Indian subcontinent should be red-listed, as is done elsewhere.

A randomized controlled trial comparing two antenatal care regimes in the management of mild to moderate gestational diabetes in a low-middle income country.

The prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in the Indian subcontinent has increased exponentially, especially after new diagnostic criteria. Identifying women who need close monitoring is a challenge. Ultrasound has been used to guide therapy but its use in the management of GDM has been used indiscriminately due to paucity of information. The use of ultrasound to guide the number of antenatal visits for adequate glycemic control has not been researched adequately. There is also a need to contrive antenatal care strategies that can obtain optimal neonatal outcomes without burdening the health system in low-middle income countries (LMIC). Our study was to compare pragmatic standard management of GDM with an ultrasound-guided regime (USGR) to prevent neonatal complications to ensure optimal care. A randomized controlled trial was done in a tertiary hospital between May 2019 and September 2021 in South India. Five hundred and eighty-eight women were randomized to a standard regime or USGR. χ2 and t-test were used to compare outcomes. Maternal and neonatal outcomes between standard and ultrasound USGR showed no significant difference in outcomes. Fetuses in USGR with AC ≥ 70th centile had macrosomia (3.59% vs 26.67%, P < 0.001), increased severity of diabetes (2.97% vs 16.67%, P < 0.001), 3rd- and 4th-degree perineal tear (2.95% vs 27.27%, P < 0.001). The increased number of visits did not decrease adverse outcomes. This small well-designed study did not show any advantage with USGR as compared to the pragmatic simple standard regime, in the treatment of women with GDM.

Western disturbances: Occurrence and impact on wheat productivity in Punjab

Western disturbances (WD) bring moderate to heavy rain in the northern parts of the country as well as heavy snow to the mountain areas of the Indian subcontinent. It is the source of most of the winter and post-monsoon rainfall in northwest India. Spatio-temporal analysis of western disturbances was carried out by using weather data recorded at Ballowal Saunkhri (sub-mountainous region), Ludhiana (central plain region) and Bathinda (south west region). The WD events per month were lowest in November and highest in March month averaged over all the agroclimatic regions. The highest numbers of WD events were found during February month in the Sub-mountainous region and during March in central plain region and south-western region. Winter rainfall quantity and number of rainfall events were higher in the sub-mountainous region followed by the central plain region and lowest in the south-western region. Higher number of WD during wheat growing season along with less and well distributed rainfall resulting in lower maximum temperature conditions were conducive for higher productivity in Punjab. The significantly positive correlation was observed between the number of western disturbances and wheat productivity during April month at central plain region and southwest region, whereas, the seasonal total number of WDs showed significant positive relationship at submontane region and southwest region.

Propagation of inequality: an analysis of capability development opportunities of Dalits in higher education on the Indian subcontinent

ABSTRACT Dalits in the Indian subcontinent region (such as India and Nepal) have low attainment in higher education. This study comprises a systematic review of 18 research papers to ascertain whether higher education institutions are disrupting or propagating caste inequalities in the Indian subcontinent. Guided by Amartya Sen’s concepts of capability development, this paper examines the Dalits’ freedom and opportunities to study in an inclusive and non-discriminatory higher education environment. The findings demonstrate that despite the government’s support for Dalit higher education, their freedom to study in an unbiased environment is limited because of the prejudiced practices of non-Dalits. The exclusion of Dalits from education is occurring through non-Dalit teachers’ and privileged peers’ prejudiced behaviour. Higher education should promote the freedom of Dalits by a) questioning the values which predominantly serve non-Dalits and b) disrupting caste-based discriminatory actions of non-Dalits.

Exotic Keratin Pearl Degradation Mechanism by Giant Cells in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma and its Plausible Hypothesis.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a formidable malignancy in the Indian subcontinent, characterized by high morbidity and mortality, with a dismal 5-year survival rate of 40-50%. The tumor's histopathological heterogeneity is well documented, particularly in its differentiation status, which ranges from well-differentiated lesions with prominent keratin pearls to poorly differentiated forms lacking such structures. Existing literature has elucidated the role of neutrophils and macrophages in the degradation of keratin pearls, the involvement of multinucleated giant cells (MNGCs) in this process remains cryptic. This study reports a novel case of a 49-year-old male with moderately differentiated OSCC, characterized by ulcerative growth in the left buccal mucosa. Histopathological analysis revealed neoplastic cell infiltration, keratinization, and abnormal mitoses, alongside the degradation of keratin pearls by large foreign body and Langhans MNGCs. This intricate keratin pearl degradation by MNGCs in OSCC highlights tumor heterogeneity and aggressiveness, offering profound insights into surgical, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy strategies. Surgeons must meticulously consider this process as a marker of aggressive behavior, warranting precise surgical planning and a multidisciplinary approach for optimal outcomes. This case emphasizes the critical role of foreign body and Langhans MNGCs in the degradation of keratin pearls within OSCC, revealing a hitherto unrecognized facet of tumor biology. This discovery holds profound implications for understanding OSCC progression, prognosis, and therapeutic responsiveness, warranting further investigation into the molecular mechanisms underpinning this process.

Soil quality assessment and mapping in basaltic terrain of Central India for sustainable soil and crop management using integrated PCA and GIS

The cereal-based cropping system plays a vital role in ensuring food security in the Indian subcontinent. However, the productivity of these systems has seen a continuous decline due to the degradation of soil quality. This study aims to develop a Soil Quality Index (SQI) for such cropping systems. A detailed survey was conducted in the Bareli watershed of Seoni district, Madhya Pradesh, at a 1:10000 scale using high-resolution satellite data and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology. The survey identified and mapped 5 soil series: Diwartola, Diwara, Bareli-1, Bareli-2 and Bareli-3. Soil quality was evaluated based on morphological, physical and chemical properties as well as fertility parameters. Key indicators for soil quality assessment included sand, silt, clay content, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, available water capacity and coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE). Additionally, pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, cation exchange capacity and nutrients like N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn were considered. The SQI was calculated using integrated principal component analysis, which involved selecting a minimum data set (MDS), assigning weights and scoring indicators. The results revealed that Diwartola soils had high quality (242.7 ha, 13.5 % TGA), Bareli-1 and Bareli-3 soils were of medium quality (462.8 ha, 25.7 % TGA), while Diwara and Bareli-2 soils were of low quality (966.1 ha, 53.8 % TGA). Agro-interventions such as agri-horticulture, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture, intensive cultivation and soil and water conservation measures were recommended based on the different mapping units.

Development of Fibre Enriched Pasta from Brow

I recently came across some interesting information about the growing popularity of millets among millennials. Brown top millets, in particular, have gained attention for their gluten-free, nutrient-dense properties and are cultivated in dry regions of India and other parts of the world. Similarly, Rajma, a crop that originated in the Indian subcontinent, is grown for food production and as a forage and cover crop. It is an excellent source of protein and is used in various food products for its therapeutic benefits. To combat nutrient- deficient diets and malnutrition, Fibre Enriched Brown Top Millet Pasta (FBTP) was developed by incorporating Brown top Millet (40%, 60%, and 80%), rajmah pulses flour (40%, 60% and 100%) grape skin powder (10% and 20%). The FBTP had a higher amount of antioxidant capacity and improved functional and nutraceutical properties. Overall, this presents a great opportunity for utilizing these crops in food products and reaping their many benefimethod's

Leveraging genetic resource diversity and identification of trait-enriched superior genotypes for accelerated improvement in linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)

Linseed or flaxseed, native to the Indian subcontinent, had undergone domestication, edaphic selection and evolutionary processes that may have resulted in huge genetic variability in Indian genotypes. To understand the hitherto unexplored genetic diversity for sustainable flaxseed production amid challenges of climate fluctuation and identify trait-specific high-yielding genotypes, 2576 unique linseed accessions were comprehensively evaluated for 36 traits for up to six environments representing two major agroecological zones in India. A wide range of variability was recorded for days to initiation of flowering (42.86–114.99), plant height (43.31–122.88 cm), capsules/plant (64.62–375.87), seed size (6.06–14.44 cm2), thousand seed weight (2.80–11.86 g), seed yield (2.93–17.28 g/plant), oil content (30.14–45.96%) and fatty acid profile especially the key constituent omega-3 fatty acid (25.4–65.88%). Most of the traits such as plant height, flowering time, seed yield, seed and capsule size showed a high or moderately high level of variance coupled with high broad sense heritability indicating precise capturing of less heritable quantitative traits. The infraspecific classification of the tested collection revealed the seed/oil type (2498 accessions) as the dominant morphotype over dual-purpose/fiber flax (78 accessions) in the conserved collection. Correlation analysis indicated a significant positive association between flowering time, plant height, days to maturity and oil content. Trait-specific superior genotypes for earliness (50% flowering in < 60 days, maturity in < 122 days), bold seeds with high thousand seed weight (> 11 g), capsules/plant (> 350), oil content (> 45%) and fatty acid composition (> 65% alpha-linolenic acid) were identified to aid genetic improvement of linseed and to broaden the narrow genetic base.

Nishad: History of the origin of primitive man

The history of Nishads is an important chapter in the development of ancient human civilization and culture. It is a symbol of the formation of human settlements on earth, the establishment of residences and the advancement of early civilizations. Based on the skeletons and evidence obtained from the excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization, it is clear that the Nishad community was part of a strong and prosperous culture till the Vedic period. Nishad culture played an important role in the creation of Vedic literature, epics, and Puranas. Nishads have been mentioned in epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata as a symbol of ideals, bravery and cooperation. Nishad kings are especially mentioned in the Mahabharata period, in which important personalities like Nishad King Nala and Eklavya are described. The roots of Nishad culture were spread in wide areas of the Indian subcontinent, in which Nishads expanded from the Himalayan ranges to Rajasthan and Punjab. Nishad mountains and Nishad land are also mentioned in the Mahabharata, which shows their geography and places of residence. The social and cultural identity of the Nishads evolved over the centuries, and they became important components of Indian culture. The etymology and usage of the word Nishad has been used in various contexts of music, yajna, and society in different periods. The contribution of the Nishads is not only significant in the cultural heritage of ancient India, but their counting system and language have also had a significant impact globally.

Cartographies of warfare in the Indian subcontinent: Contextualizing archaeological and historical analysis through big data approaches

Some of the most notable human behavioral palimpsests result from warfare and its durable traces in the form of defensive architecture and strategic infrastructure. For premodern periods, this architecture is often understudied at the large scale, resulting in a lack of appreciation for the enormity of the costs and impacts of military spending over the course of human history. In this article, we compare the information gleaned from the study of the fortified cities of the Early Historic period of the Indian subcontinent (c. 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE) with the precolonial medieval era (9-17th centuries CE). Utilizing in-depth archaeological and historical studies along with local sightings and citizen-science blogs to create a comprehensive data set and map series in a “big-data” approach that makes use of heterogeneous data sets and presence-absence criteria, we discuss how the architecture of warfare shifted from an emphasis on urban defense in the Early Historic period to an emphasis on territorial offense and defense in the medieval period. Many medieval fortifications are known from only local reports and have minimal identifying information but can still be studied in the aggregate using a least-shared denominator approach to quantification and mapping.

Plant extinction in the Anthropocene

Abstract Species go extinct each day, most without notice. The current human-induced extinction rate is up to 700 times higher than the background rate. Extinctions are not different for plants, animals, or fungi, although botanical and invertebrate extinctions are much more poorly documented than those of charismatic vertebrates. In a recent book on extinct plants (Christenhusz &amp; Govaerts, 2023), an overview of botanical extinctions since 1753 was presented, listing which species became extinct and the probable reason for their extinction. As most have a date when they were last documented, a timeline of extinction can also be compiled based on these data. This timeline shows an increase from 1890 to 1940, but a decline in new recorded extinctions after the 1980s, which is likely a result of taxonomic impediment. Extinction rates before 1800 are impacted by the lack of data (here named Berkeley extinction). It can be concluded that extinction is highest in biodiversity-rich areas with high human influence (extinction hotspots). Two new combinations and a new name are proposed here, showing the importance of taxonomy to conservation. Although anthropogenic plant extinction is a global phenomenon, areas of particular concern are the Hawaiian Islands, southern Africa, Australia, the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Brazil. Extinctions have been mainly caused by land clearing for agriculture and urbanization, invasive feral animals, mining, river dams, diseases, and poaching. We predict that the unusual weather patterns associated with rapid climate change may result in more plant extinctions. Reintroduction, even if a species persists in cultivation, is not always possible due to lack of suitable remaining habitat where threats are decreased or removed. Successful reintroduction cannot be guaranteed. It is costly and usually dependent on short-term funding, after which these efforts may be in vain. Protection of species in their natural habitat is much more cost-effective in the long term. Sometimes, rescued plants should be introduced in similar habitats outside their natural range where the threats are absent. This follows the programmes of assisted migration for climate change mitigation, but this can also be assisted introduction to prevent extinction. Protection of critically endangered species that have naturalized outside their native range should also be considered.

Molecular characterization and expression profiling of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and hydroxysteroid 17-beta dehydrogenase in response to HCG stimulation in striped murrel, Channa striata (Bloch, 1793)

Striped murrel (Channa striata) is highly valued in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia for its nutritional and medicinal benefits. However, the limited availability of high-quality seeds of murrel and the asynchronous maturation of brooders, particularly during peak spawning seasons creates problems in aquaculture. Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (β-HSDs) are steroidogenic enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of active steroids in gametogenesis and steroidogenesis. This study aimed to clone and characterize the full-length cDNA sequences of two crucial enzymes, 3-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (Hsd3β) and 17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (Hsd17β). It resulted in full-length cDNA sequences for Hsd3β and Hsd17β with 1101bp and 771bp length, respectively, encoding 366 and 256 amino acids. Signal peptide analysis indicated that both proteins are secretory, and hydropathy profiles suggested their hydrophilic nature. Notably, Rossmann-fold NAD(P)(+)-binding domains characteristic of Short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases (SDR) family genes were identified in Hsd3β (between 9-355 aa) and in Hsd17β (between 10-254 aa). Gene expression analyses were performed in testes and ovaries using qPCR at three key stages: preparatory, mature, and 16 h post human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) injection (16 hpi). Results demonstrated a significant 2-fold upregulation of Hsd17β in mature and 16 hpi testes, while Hsd3β showed a significant 10-fold upregulation in mature testes compared to premature and 16 hpi stages. Ovarian expression of Hsd3β and Hsd17β showed minimal expression upon hCG injection (P < 0.05). These findings contribute to our understanding of Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (β-HSDs), providing insights into regulating sex steroid hormone synthesis during the gonadal development of striped murrel.

Glyptothorax pongoensis, a new species of rheophilic catfish (Sisoridae) from the Brahmaputra River drainage, Nagaland, India

ABSTRACT Glyptothorax pongoensis, sp. n. is described from the Yongmon River in Nagaland, India. The new species can be distinguished from its congeners in the Indian subcontinent by the following combination of characters: an ovate-shaped thoracic adhesive apparatus with skin ridges present over the entire apparatus, including the subulate-shaped median depression; presence of plicae on the ventral surface of the pectoral fin spine and the first ray of the pelvic fin; W-shaped anterior nuchal plate element; dorsal-fin origin nearer to the snout tip than to the origin of the adipose fin; posterior margin of dorsal spine rugose with 4–5 ridges, tuberculate skin, and nasal barbel not reaching eye when adpressed. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:5D71008D-5D28-4C77-9FA2-D5074DDA7BC9

An Economic Insights of Agricultural Sustainability in the Himalayan Districts of Jammu and Kashmir, India

The agriculture scenario has witnessed a tremendous change after the independence of the Indian subcontinent. It had undergone number of reforms to protect both supply and demand side interests. The food security was ensured by increasing its production and the country has emerged as one of the top producers of number of commodities. The commercialization of agriculture shifted subsistence farming to a more market-oriented approach, where agricultural production is primarily aimed at generating income and participating in the market economy which involves increased scale of production, adopting modern technologies and focusing on cash crops and high – value commodities. However the unscientific use of these resources and indispensable application of inputs has led to several drawbacks like labour migration, shift to monoculture practices, decline in the water table, vulnerabilities in terms of food security during market fluctuations. Creating concerns of sustainability needs an immediate attention. Sustainability is to be assured to ensure food supply and for the balanced economic growth. Agricultural sustainability in Jammu and Kashmir is influenced by various factors. It provides production environment to a number of niche crops including apple, walnut, saffron, vegetables, major agriculture products etc., But its agriculture faces the unique environmental, social and economic challenges, despite known for their rich ecological diversity. Though essential, the urbanization results in the shift of productive land to undesirable use which may lead to ecological implications. This background necessitated a comprehensive attempt to examine the sustainability of agriculture in relationship with various economic, ecological and social indicators with an intention to come up with findings having greater policy implications for long term sustenance of agrarian economy in J&amp;K. Shopian(0.604) ranked first among all the districts in terms of Agricultural sustainability, followed by Jammu(0.598) and Kathua(0.564) and least performing districts were found to be Srinagar(0.406), followed by Ramban(0.413) and Kupwara(0.420). The calculated Composite Sustainability Index helps us to differentiate the districts based on their index value under various categories of the sustainability level.

Rare forms of monogenic diabetes in non-European individuals. First reports of CEL and RFX6 mutations from the Indian subcontinent.

Monogenic diabetes is one of the few examples in metabolic diseases in which a real precision medicine approach can be implemented in daily clinical work. Unfortunately, most of what is known today comes from studies in Whites, thus leaving much uncertainty about the genetics and the clinical presentation of monogenic diabetes in non-Europeans. To fill this gap, we report here two pedigrees from Bangladesh with CEL- and RFX6- diabetes, two rare types of monogenic diabetes which have never been described so far in individuals of the Indian subcontinent. Next generation, Sanger sequencing and Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA) were performed. Variants' interpretation was according to the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics guidelines. In the pedigree with CEL-diabetes, a large and never described deletion of exon 2-11 of CEL (confirmed by MLPA) affecting the entire catalytic domain and being likely pathogenic (LP) was observed in both the proband (who had diabetes at 16) and his mother (diabetes at 31), but not in relatives with normoglycemia. In the pedigree with RFX6-diabetes, a LP protein truncation variant (PTV, p.Tyr192*) in RFX6 was found in both the proband (diabetes at 9) and his mother (diabetes at 30), thus suggesting high heterogeneity in disease onset. Normoglycemic relatives were not available for genetic testing. We report genetic features and clinical presentation of the first two cases of CEL- and RFX6-diabetes from the Indian subcontinent, thus contributing to fill the gap of knowledge on monogenic diabetes in non-Europeans.

Retention of methicillin susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus using natural adjuvant as an allosteric modifier of penicillin-binding protein 2a

The emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses a significant global public health challenge due to its resistance to conventional antibiotics, primarily mediated by the mutated penicillin-binding protein, PBP2a. This study aims to investigate the potential of phytochemicals derived from medicinal plants in the Indian subcontinent to serve as adjuvants, enhancing the efficacy of methicillin against MRSA through allosteric modification of PBP2a using molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. After comprehensive Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME) profiling, along with AMES and hepatotoxicity tests, 9 compounds were shortlisted as suitable adjuvant candidates. Among them, nimbolide, quercetin, emodin, daidzein, eriodictyol, luteolin, and apigenin exhibited strong binding affinity to the allosteric site of PBP2a, with docking scores ranging from −8.7 to −7.3 kcal/mol. These phytochemicals facilitated enhanced methicillin binding, as evidenced by improved docking scores ranging from −6.1 to −6.8 kcal/mol, compared to −5.6 kcal/mol for methicillin alone. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability and favorable conformations of phytochemical-PBP2a complexes. Quercetin and daidzein were identified as the most promising adjuvant candidates, forming stable and energetically favorable complexes with PBP2a. Experimental validation showed that quercetin, at 30 mg/mL, effectively retained methicillin's antibacterial efficacy against MRSA. This study underscores the potential of natural compounds in overcoming antibiotic resistance and suggests that phytochemical-antibiotic synergism could be a viable strategy to combat multidrug-resistant bacterial infections.

Harmony of Healing: Exploring Ayurveda's Timeless Wisdom in Pharmacy Practices: A Review

Ayurveda, an ancient system of medicine originating from the Indian subcontinent, has gained significant attention and recognition worldwide. Ayurveda emphasizes a holistic approach to health and disease management, focusing on the balance between mind, body and spirit. Traditional Ayurvedic practices incorporate various therapeutic interventions, including herbal medicines, dietary modifications, yoga, meditation and lifestyle modifications. With growing interest in natural and alternative therapies, Ayurveda has become a subject of extensive scientific investigation and integration into modern pharmaceutical practices. This review is to provide an updated and comprehensive understanding of Ayurveda¢s role in pharmacy and its potential contributions to the field of healthcare.

First report of Trypoxylon clavicerum (Crabronidae: Hymenoptera) from the Indian subcontinent: its nesting behaviour and prey preference

Abstract A study was conducted to document the nesting behaviour and prey composition of a crabronid wasp, Trypoxylon sp. The wasp was molecularly characterised as T. clavicerum (NCBI Accession No. OQ913679.1). Nest acceptance rate was significantly higher in the reeds of Ipomea carnea (79.20%) and bamboo (84.80%). The mean number of brood cells (4.40 ± 0.89 cells/nest) and vestibular cells (1.06 cells/nest) built by the wasp was significantly higher in the reeds of I. carnea. Brood parasitisation by the nest parasite Amobia sp. was significantly higher in nests built by the wasp in paper straws (58.57%) compared to the nests built in the reeds of bamboo (23.33%). The mean durations of the egg, larval and pupal stages of T. clavicerum were 2.60 ± 0.55, 6.01 ± 0.71 and 4.80 ± 0.84 days. The number of nests recovered was observed to be the highest during the months of August (3.66 ± 1.53 nests), September (5.00 ± 4.36 nests), October (8.67 ± 2.89 nests) and November (6.00 ± 2.10 nests). The major species of spider from the occupied nests belonged to two families, viz. Salticidae (81%) and Oxyopidae (19%). During the nesting period the adult wasp provisioned a greater number of spiderlings (3.25 to 3.60 spiderlings/cell) than adult spiders (1.20 to 1.60 adult spiders/cell) to her brood. The time taken to complete a single nest provisioned with adult spiders and spiderlings (13.20 ± 6.83 hr/single nest) was significantly less than for the nests provisioned with adult spiders (46.80 ± 14.80 hr/single nest) only. This study is the first ever report of nesting behaviour and prey composition of the spider-hunting wasp T. clavicerum from India.

PLIGHT OF PARTITION IN KHUSHWANT SINGH’S TRAIN TO PAKISTAN

In August 1947, the British left Indian Subcontinent after almost 200 years. British India was divided into two independent Nations - India and Pakistan. The distribution of human was based on the religion. Pakistan had the majority of Muslims while India having Hindu majority. This division of Indian subcontinent and the formation of two independent nations is known as ‘partition’ in history. The leaders who dreamt of the partition wanted to free the land from the oppression of British Raj. But they couldn’t guess that right after the end of a struggle story, another will start. A huge religious clash emerged throughout the land. Muslims were forced to march towards Pakistan while Hindus and Sikhs were forced to march towards India. Most of them literally had no idea why the English left India, why they are leaving their homes and whether they will ever return or not. Khushwant Singh's novel Train to Pakistan pictures how a peaceful land turns into a death-land after the partition. The paper seeks to shed lights on the plight of Partition detailed in Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan and attempts to analyze the horrible experience of puzzled common people.