Subarctic Communities Research Articles

Vulnerability and adaptation on the icecap’s edge: farming communities in subarctic South Greenland

ABSTRACT Variability in climate and weather conditions and socio-economic shifts are dramatically altering the landscapes and livelihoods of peoples of the northern high-latitudes. Such escalating trends have distinctive consequences at the local and regional scale and the ability to adapt to such rapid changes will challenge cultural, social, and economic systems across Arctic regions. Using a cultural landscape approach, this study provides an in-depth qualitative analysis of sheep farming communities in subarctic South Greenland. Our study centers local voices and helps document shifting weather-related and other socio-economic challenges. We interview four farming households, one historian, and one local economic development expert to understand the broader context, the challenges and vulnerabilities, and the persistence of agriculture in this high north region. Our analysis reveals four overarching themes influencing the sustainability of sheep farming: (1) multi-generational farming heritage, (2) reciprocity and community support, (3) shifting weather and climate influences and farming livelihoods, and (4) farm operations and new opportunities. Findings from this study fill a gap in the literature on local and regional impacts of weather and socio-economic shifts in remote regions. Through the inclusion of local Inuit and other voices, we document how geographically dispersed subarctic communities are adapting to broader shifts.

Indoor comfort management and energy consumption in Arctic buildings: Occupant perceptions in an indigenous community of Canada

Arctic and subarctic communities currently face major and unique energy and housing challenges. However, the perceptions, needs, and adaptive strategies of occupants related to energy consumption and comfort in their dwellings are not well known. In this study, 16 semi-structured interviews were conducted in the Inuit community of Quaqtaq (Nunavik, Quebec, Canada) to investigate occupants’ experiences, observations, and perceptions on these topics. The topics covered comfort, window opening, use of curtains, and usage of thermostats, water, and lighting. Furthermore, awareness of energy consumption and renewable technologies was investigated, and occupants shared their vision of the ideal home. It was found that windows and thermostats are often used simultaneously to regulate temperature and that non-uniform temperature distribution and cold floors were often noted by occupants. Due to the limited amount of water available, coordination with neighbors was needed for activities requiring water. Awareness and interest in energy savings and renewable energy varied significantly among participants. Participants mentioned that their ideal home would have better insulation, larger water tanks, and more storage space. These results help to understand occupant behavior, energy consumption patterns, and well-being in houses of northern communities and can guide the development of future housing units.

Electrical Resistivity Tomography Investigation of Permafrost Conditions in a Thermokarst Site in Fairbanks, Alaska

<abstract> <p>The degradation of permafrost poses severe environmental threats to communities in cold regions. As near-surface permafrost warms, extensive topographic variability is prevalent in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic communities. Geologic hazards such as thermokarst are formed due to varying rates of permafrost degradation, resulting in ground subsidence. This gradual subsidence or abrupt collapse of the earth causes a danger to existing infrastructure and the economic activities of communities in cold regions. Understanding the causes of thermokarst development and its dynamics requires imaging its underground morpho-structures and characterizing the surface and subsurface controls. In this study, we conducted a two-dimensional (2D) electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey to characterize the permafrost conditions in a thermokarst prone site located in Fairbanks, Alaska. To increase the reliability in the interpretability of the ERT data, borehole data and the depth-of-investigation (DOI) methods were applied. By using the 2D and three-dimensional (3D) ERT methods, we gained valuable information on the spatial variability of transient processes, such as the movement of freezing and thawing fronts. Resistivity imaging across the site exhibited distinct variations in permafrost conditions, with both low and high resistive anomalies observed along the transects. These anomalies, representing taliks and ice wedges, were characterized by resistivity values ranging from 50 Ωm and above 700 Ωm, respectively. The results from this study showed the effectiveness of ERT to characterize permafrost conditions and thermokarst subsurface morpho-structures. The insights gained from this research contribute to a better understanding of the causes and dynamics of thermokarst, which can be instrumental for engineers in developing feasible remedial measures.</p> </abstract>

Geothermal heat pumps to reduce diesel consumption in an off-grid subarctic community: Comparison of solar assisted systems with optional underground energy storage

Overdependence on fossil fuels for heating and electricity poses significant challenges for remote communities in northern Quebec. This study evaluates the efficiency, heating costs and relevance of solar-assisted geothermal systems in a subarctic climate. Detailed subsurface data collected from Whapmagoostui–Kuujjuarapik were used to simulate heat pumps coupled to borehole heat exchangers, taking into account the possibility of thermal energy storage. Results show that a conventional configuration of borehole heat exchanger effectively meet low heating demands, while borehole thermal energy storage enables the annual balancing of ground loads and meets the high unbalanced heating demands. This work offers valuable insights for optimizing ground heat exchanger configurations in a harsh climate.

Sources of exposure to lead in Arctic and subarctic regions: a scoping review

ABSTRACT Understanding lead exposure pathways is a priority because of its ubiquitous presence in the environment as well as the potential health risks. We aimed to identify potential lead sources and pathways of lead exposure, including long-range transport, and the magnitude of exposure in Arctic and subarctic communities. A scoping review strategy and screening approach was used to search literature from January 2000 to December 2020. A total of 228 academic and grey literature references were synthesised. The majority of these studies (54%) were from Canada. Indigenous people in Arctic and subarctic communities in Canada had higher levels of lead than the rest of Canada. The majority of studies in all Arctic countries reported at least some individuals above the level of concern. Lead levels were influenced by a number of factors including using lead ammunition to harvest traditional food and living in close proximity to mines. Lead levels in water, soil, and sediment were generally low. Literature showed the possibility of long-range transport via migratory birds. Household lead sources included lead-based paint, dust, or tap water. This literature review will help to inform management strategies for communities, researchers, and governments, with the aim of decreasing lead exposure in northern regions.

An Examination of Outdoor Garden Bed Designs in a Subarctic Community

At the global level, interest is growing in extending agricultural activities northwards to increase future food production. Agricultural activities are emerging at the local level in the subarctic and Arctic regions in order to adapt to climate change, mitigate food insecurities, and build up food autonomy. This pilot crop management study was situated in the Hudson Bay Lowlands within an isolated, Indigenous community garden site surrounded by a mature shelterbelt. The study’s purpose was to compare kale growing in three types of low-cost garden bed treatments (four plots per treatment) under ambient conditions in a subarctic climate. The 2019 study measured aboveground biomass and total leaf surface area of kale, monitored soil climate conditions of each treatment, and deciphered, with regards to regional suitability, the benefits and drawbacks of each garden bed treatment. Kale cultivated in the standard boxes (0.25 m height raised bed) and hügelkultur-style boxes (0.50 m height raised bed, including a layer of buried woody debris) resulted in 44 – 58% more aboveground mass and 52% more total surface area than were yielded in kale cultivated in the ground treatment (not elevated), but these increases did not represent statistically significant differences among treatments (ANOVA, p ≥ 0.12) because of the large variation likely from a small sample size. The two raised box treatments increased early-season soil temperatures by 0.5˚C to 2.5˚C and reduced soil moisture by 41% – 53% compared to the ground treatment. We determined that the standard box treatment is best suited for the study site for improving soil climate conditions, protecting against water erosion, and decreasing the need to bend over.

Modeling of solar-assisted ground-coupled heat pumps with or without batteries in remote high north communities

Many subarctic communities rely entirely on fossil fuels for their energy needs. Solar-assisted ground-coupled heat pumps (SAGCHP) can be a solution to integrate renewable energy sources into their energy portfolios. However, it is currently unknown how such systems could operate in the context of the high North (cold ground, extreme mismatch between insolation and heating need, electricity from diesel). The objective of the paper is to develop a detailed model of a SAGCHP heating a house in Nunavik (Quebec, Canada) in order to gain a better understanding of its potential and limitations. The solar assistance is provided by PVs. Simulations with and without electric storage (batteries) were run. A complex tradeoff between four different modes of operation was obtained depending on the conditions of the system at each time step. For the test case, results show that the ground experiences a weak long-term thermal depletion partly compensated solar energy, but that a significant portion of the PV power production is preferably used by the compressor or stored in batteries rather than stored in the ground as heat. Over ten years, the SAGCHP system reduced fuel consumption respectively by 38.2% (without a battery) and 59.1% (with a battery).

Stability of Saxitoxin in 50% Methanol Fecal Extracts and Raw Feces from Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus).

In recent decades, harmful algal blooms (HABs) producing paralytic shellfish toxins (including saxitoxin, STX) have become increasingly frequent in the marine waters of Alaska, USA, subjecting Pacific Arctic and subarctic communities and wildlife to increased toxin exposure risks. Research on the risks of HAB toxin exposures to marine mammal health commonly relies on the sampling of marine mammal gastrointestinal (GI) contents to quantify HAB toxins, yet no studies have been published testing the stability of STX in marine mammal GI matrices. An understanding of STX stability in test matrices under storage and handling conditions is imperative to the integrity of toxin quantifications and conclusions drawn thereby. Here, STX stability is characterized in field-collected bowhead whale feces (stored raw in several treatments) and in fecal extracts (50% methanol, MeOH) over multiple time points. Toxin stability, as the percent of initial concentration (T0), was reported for each storage treatment and time point. STX was stable (mean 99% T0) in 50% MeOH extracts over the 8-week study period, and there was no significant difference in STX concentrations quantified in split fecal samples extracted in 80% ethanol (EtOH) and 50% MeOH. STX was also relatively stable in raw fecal material stored in the freezer (mean 94% T0) and the refrigerator (mean 93% T0) up to 8 weeks. STX degraded over time in the room-temperature dark, room-temperature light, and warm treatments to means of 48 ± 1.9, 38 ± 2.8, and 20 ± 0.7% T0, respectively, after 8 weeks (mean ± standard error; SE). Additional opportunistically analyzed samples frozen for ≤4.5 years also showed STX to be relatively stable (mean 97% T0). Mean percent of T0 was measured slightly above 100% in some extracts following some treatments, and (most notably) at some long-term frozen time points, likely due to evaporation from samples causing STX to concentrate, or variability between ELISA plates. Overall, these results suggest that long-term frozen storage of raw fecal samples and the analysis of extracts within 8 weeks of extraction in 50% MeOH is sufficient for obtaining accurate STX quantifications in marine mammal fecal material without concerns about significant degradation.

Copepod community structure in the transition region of the North Pacific Ocean: Water mixing as a key driver of secondary production enhancement in subarctic and subtropical waters

The North Pacific Ocean subtropical–subarctic gyre transition region is recognized as an important small pelagic fish nursery and feeding ground. To clarify the lower trophic level variability of the transition region pelagic ecosystem, we investigated the large-scale variation in copepod communities in relation to the oceanographic environment. We net sampled zooplankton in the upper 150 m from the coast to approximately 4,500 km offshore to the east (140° E − 165° W) during early summer in 2017 and 2018. Cluster analysis based on abundance and species composition at 233 sampling stations showed that the subarctic boundary, defined by a salinity of 34.0 at 150 m depth, separated subarctic and subtropical copepod communities, as a clear biogeographical border. The two communities were each further classified into four subgroups. Among the subgroups, a typical subarctic subgroup dominated by Neocalanus spp. was broadly distributed in the subarctic HNLC (high-nutrient and low-chlorophyll a concentrations) region, whereas a typical subtropical subgroup characterized by a higher overall species diversity occurred in the warm oligotrophic water. In addition, in both these subgroups, the composition of the chlorophyll a size fraction suggested that the food web was mainly based on small-sized phytoplankton. Further analysis of the other subgroups indicated that both the subtropical and subarctic communities showed distinctive succession patterns depending on the degree of water mixing. During succession, a consistent increase in copepod abundance, especially large-sized suspension feeders (e.g., Eucalanus and Calanus) associated with the high productivity of large diatoms was observed in both main communities. The present study revealed that water mixing in the transition region consistently enhances the grazing food chain in both subtropical and subarctic communities, showing the potential underlying mechanisms of control of prey availability for small pelagic fish that exploit the region as a key nursery and feeding ground.

Phylogenetic signal of sub‐arctic beetle communities

Postglacial dispersal and colonization processes have shaped community patterns in sub‐Arctic regions such as Churchill, Manitoba, and Canada. This study investigates evolutionary community structure within the beetle (Coleoptera) families of Churchill and tests whether biological traits have played a role in governing colonization patterns from refugial and southerly geographic regions. This study quantifies sub‐Arctic beetle phylogenetic community structure for each family using the net relatedness index (NRI) and nearest taxon index (NTI), calculated using publicly available data from the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD); compares patterns across families with different traits (habitat, diet) using standard statistical analysis (ANOVA) as well as phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) using a family‐level beetle phylogeny obtained from the literature; and compares community structure in Churchill with a region in southern Canada (Guelph, Ontario). These analyses were also repeated at a genus level. The dominant pattern detected in our study was that aquatic families were much better represented in Churchill compared to terrestrial families, when compared against richness sampled from across Canada and Alaska. Individually, most families showed significant phylogenetic clustering in Churchill, likely due to the strong environmental filtering present in Arctic environments. There was no significant difference in phylogenetic structure between Churchill and Guelph but with a trend toward stronger clustering in the North. Fungivores were significantly more overdispersed than other feeding modes, predators were significantly more clustered, and aquatic families showed significantly stronger clustering compared to terrestrial. This study contributes to our understanding of the traits and processes structuring insect biodiversity and macroecological trends in the sub‐Arctic.

Drinking water perception and consumption in Canadian subarctic Indigenous communities and the importance for public health

Resource development and climate change are increasing concerns regarding safe water for Indigenous people in Canada. A research study was completed to characterize the consumption of water and beverages prepared with water and identify the perception of water consumption in Indigenous communities from the Northwest Territories and Yukon, Canada. As part of a larger research program, data for this study were available from a 24-hour recall dietary survey ( n = 162), a health messages survey ( n = 150), and an exposure factor survey ( n = 63). A focus group was conducted with Elders in an on-the-land camp setting. The consumption of water-based beverages in winter was 0.9 L/day on average, mainly consisting of tea and coffee. Of the 81% of respondents who reported consuming water-based beverages in the previous 24 hours of the survey, 33% drank more bottled water than tap water. About 2% of respondents consumed water from the land (during the winter season). Chlorine smell was the main limiting factor reported to the consumption of tap water. Results from the focus group indicated that Indigenous knowledge might impact both the perception and consumption of water. These findings aim to support public health efforts to enable people to make water their drink of choice.

The Impact of Road Connection on Employment and Education in Northern Canada

Road connection is viewed as a contributing factor to a variety of positive economic outcomes. However, for remote subarctic communities, it can also mean a significant impact on in their way of life. To which extent does road connection impact socio-economic outcomes such as salary, education or employment? This paper uses census data from Northern Quebec and Labrador to assess the effects of road connection on municipalities connected between 1986 and 2016. Using a difference-in-differences specification to an OLS regression model, assorted with robustness checks, we find that road connection is correlated with increased employment rates and educational attainment and decreased unemployment. While we also find positive and significant correlations between road connection and income in many specifications, that particular result is not robust when ensuring that error terms are not subject to cross-sectional dependence. Overall, our results support the conjecture that road connection of remote municipalities generates non-negligible economic benefits.

An archetype-based energy modelling approach for a remote, subarctic community

For many remote communities, fossil fuels are used for both heating and electricity generation; however, while electricity use is measured by the distributor, the proportion of thermal energy end-use is rarely known because of the individual nature of heating and hot water systems. Consequently, most renewable energy studies target only the production of electricity, overlooking the significant fossil fuel use for space and hot water heating in cold climates. To address the existing bias, this study implements a bottom-up approach for simulating thermal energy demand in a remote, subarctic community. The proposed method relies on six novel residential archetypes appropriate to the region, which are shown to deliver better accuracy than the existing United States Department of Energy Climate Zone 8 archetypes. Simulation results indicate that thermal energy demands account for half of fossil fuel consumption in the community and are therefore an important consideration in energy system decarbonization strategies.

Wild and Farmed Arctic Charr as a Tourism Product in an Era of Climate Change

The topic investigated is the social-ecological system of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) fishing and aquaculture as a tourism product in an era of climate change. Arctic charr is a resilient salmonid species that was traditionally an important part of the sustenance economy in Arctic and Subarctic communities as a source of fresh food throughout the year. Arctic charr populations have declined in recent years, in part due to climate change. These changes in the freshwater ecosystems in turn affect the cultural and economic traditions of freshwater fishing and consumption. This development has consequences for the tourism industry as hunting, fishing and consuming local and traditional food is important in branding tourism destinations. Fisheries are no longer the source of this important ingredient in the Nordic culinary tradition, instead aquaculture production supplies nearly all the Arctic charr consumed. In this paper, we pool the resources of an interdisciplinary team of scholars researching climate change, freshwater ecology, aquaculture and tourism. We integrate knowledge from these fields to discuss likely future scenarios for Arctic charr, their implications for transdisciplinary social ecosystem approaches to sustainable production, marketing and management, particularly how this relates to the growing industry of tourism in the Nordic Arctic and Subarctic region. We pose the questions whether Arctic Charr will be on the menu in 20 years and if so, where will it come from, and what consequences does that have for local food in tourism of the region? Our discussion starts with climate change and the question of how warm it is likely to get in the Nordic Arctic, particularly focusing on Iceland and Norway. To address the implications of the warming of lakes and rivers of the global north for Arctic charr we move on to a discussion of physiological and ecological factors that are important for the distribution of the species. We present the state of the art of Arctic charr aquaculture before articulating the importance of the species for marketing of local and regional food, particularly in the tourism market. Finally, we discuss the need for further elaboration of future scenarios for the interaction of the Arctic charr ecosystem and the economic trade in the species and draw conclusions about sustainable future development.

Specific Features of the Macrozoobenthic Communities of Small Arctic Lakes in Eurasia

The taxonomic structure, typology, species richness, and total abundance of bentic and littoral macroinvertebrate communities from small lakes of the Arctic and Subarctic zones are considered on the basis of original data from three northern Palearctic regions (the foot of the Putorana Plateau, Kolguev Island, and Western Svalbard Island). A comparative analysis of the communities of these regions has been carried out. The features of High Arctic insular, Low Arctic, subarctic, and boreal lake communities are discussed using a large volume of literature data. The complex pattern of changes in the total benthos biomass of small lakes has been revealed: it decreases in the subarctic taiga, increases in the hypoarctic tundra, and decreases again in the High Arctic.

Blue whiting Micromesistius poutassou diel feeding behaviour in the Irminger Sea

With warming ocean temperatures, the abundance of blue whiting Micromesistius poutassou is increasing in the waters around Greenland. However, in this region, knowledge about the species’ trophic role in the ecosystem is scarce. Consequently, we investigated the diet composition and diel feeding behaviour of blue whiting in the north-eastern part of the Irminger Sea in Greenland waters by analysing their stomach contents and the vertical position/movements of their prey from zooplankton samples and hydroacoustic measurements. We collected the data during a designated experimental survey in July 2016 with repeated sampling at the same location. Results from the stomachs of 624 blue whiting individuals ranging from 22-39 cm long (total length) showed that the highest food intake took place from noon until late evening, with minimum feeding occurring in the morning. The most essential prey groups consisted of euphausiids, copepods, amphipods and fish, in that respective order. Regarding copepod prey, blue whiting had a strong affinity for Calanus hyperboreus and Paraeuchaeta spp. and showed potential for local depletion of these large copepods. On the other hand, the more abundant but smaller C. finmarchicus was almost absent in the fish stomachs, in contrast to findings in other regions. This new understanding provides an early indication of some of the emerging trophodynamics in the Irminger Sea and similar subarctic zooplankton communities with increasing numbers of blue whiting. Our results confirm the importance of accounting for diel and size-specific differences in blue whiting feeding when studying various aspects of its food intake.

Ocean acidification modifies biomolecule composition in organic matter through complex interactions

The main source of marine organic carbon (OC) is autotrophic production, while heterotrophic degradation is its main sink. Increased anthropogenic CO2 release leads to ocean acidification and is expected to alter phytoplankton community composition, primary production rates and bacterial degradation processes in the coming decades with potential consequences for dissolved and particulate OC concentration and composition. Here we investigate effects of increased pCO2 on dissolved and particulate amino acids (AA) and carbohydrates (CHO), in arctic and sub-arctic planktonic communities in two large-scale mesocosm experiments. Dissolved AA concentrations responded to pCO2/pH changes during early bloom phases but did not show many changes after nutrient addition. A clear positive correlation in particulate AA was detected in post-bloom phases. Direct responses in CHO concentrations to changing pCO2/pH were lacking, suggesting that observed changes were rather indirect and dependent on the phytoplankton community composition. The relative composition of AA and CHO did not change as a direct consequence of pCO2 increase. Changes between bloom phases were associated with the prevailing nutrient status. Our results suggest that biomolecule composition will change under future ocean conditions but responses are highly complex, and seem to be dependent on many factors including bloom phase and sampling site.

Predicting the Food-Energy Nexus of Wild Food Systems: Informing Energy Transitions for Isolated Indigenous Communities

Many isolated and indigenous Arctic and Subarctic communities are mixed-subsistence-cash economies. In the 20th century, the integration of motorized transport expanded access to harvestable resources but created energy dependence intricately linking food with energy security. As remote communities became more vulnerable to fossil fuel price fluctuations, they also face new challenges related to climate change such as shorter winter seasons. The transitioning from fossil fuels to local renewable energy sources is widely considered both an adaptation and mitigation strategy. We empirically analyzed the food-energy nexus for nine Arctic and Subarctic communities using a Bayesian hierarchical model. We predict household-level gasoline consumption based on wild food harvest and vehicle type. We found that cars and trucks are the least energy efficient forms of transportation whereas snowmobiles are the most efficient. Also, communities with strong traditional wild food production and specialization are more likely to be energy efficient. The results suggest that indigenous culture is an important contributor to effective climate mitigation, energy, and food security. Our analysis supports community adaptation and planning for improved quantitative understanding of the food-energy nexus in rural Arctic communities. The study assists communities with energy transitions away from fossil fuels towards local renewable energy sources.

Heavy metals in the Arctic: Distribution and enrichment of five metals in Alaskan soils.

Metal contamination of food and water resources is a known public health issue in Arctic and sub-Arctic communities due to the proximity of many communities to mining and drilling sites. In addition, permafrost thaw may release heavy metals sequestered in previously frozen soils, potentially contaminating food and water resources by increasing the concentration of metals in freshwater, plants, and wildlife. Here we assess the enrichment of selected heavy metals in Alaskan soils by synthesizing publicly available data of soil metal concentrations. We analyzed data of soil concentrations of arsenic, chromium, mercury, nickel, and lead from over 1,000 samples available through the USGS Alaskan Geochemical Database to evaluate 1) the spatial distribution of sampling locations for soil metal analysis, 2) metal concentrations in soils from different land cover types and depths, and 3) the occurrence of soils in Alaska with elevated metal concentrations relative to other soils. We found substantial clustering of sample sites in the southwestern portion of Alaska in discontinuous and sporadic permafrost, while the continuous permafrost zone in Northern Alaska and the more populous Interior are severely understudied. Metal concentration varied by land cover type but lacked consistent patterns. Concentrations of chromium, mercury, and lead were higher in soils below 10 cm depth, however these deeper soils are under-sampled. Arsenic, chromium, mercury, nickel and lead concentrations exceeded average values for US soils by one standard deviation or more in 3.7% to 18.7% of the samples in this dataset. Our analysis highlights critical gaps that impede understanding of how heavy metals in thawing permafrost soils may become mobilized and increase exposure risk for Arctic communities.

Fertilizing bush beans with locally made compost in a remote subarctic community

AbstractHigh latitude communities are cultivating crops to adapt to global warming, and thereby reduce dependency on food importation. To minimize the dependency of imported soil nutrient amendments for crop production, the Indigenous subarctic community of Fort Albany First Nation generated compost using by‐products from the traditional activities of goose harvesting along with other organic waste within the community. The compost was evaluated in a single growing season pot experiment as an amendment for bush beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) by being mixed with the local Terric Haplosaprist edaphic soil that was P and K deficient. Twelve pots growing bush beans were amended with compost at rates ranging from 3 to 30% and with unamended controls. All eight plant metrics (height, aboveground, leaf and bean biomass, quantity of leaves and pods, and individual and summed leaf surface area) showed a significant positive relationship with increasing compost amendments (p ≤ .0025, r2 = .66–.86), suggesting soils with compost attain greater bean yields than unamended soil. A threshold of bean growth was not reached, implying that compost amendments >30% may provide even greater bean yield. However, the application of P and K with the 30% compost addition exceeds recommended rates, suggesting that nutrient availability was hindered. Notwithstanding logistical issues in scaling‐up to amend all gardens in the community, such as improving the compost quality and quantity, composting using Indigenous harvest by‐products and local organic wastes is a promising adaptive food security strategy.