Subadult Females Research Articles

Resurrection of Alebion difficile (van Beneden, 1892) (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida: Caligidae) with notes on other species of Alebion Krøyer, 1863 collected from elasmobranchs off South Africa and an updated key of the adult females.

Alebion Krøyer, 1863 is one of the genera of the Caligidae Burmeister, 1835 and can easily be distinguished from other genera by the presence of modified exopodal spines on legs 1-3. Currently there are eight recognised species infecting a variety of elasmobranch hosts. Alebion difficile (van Beneden, 1892) is resurrected based on the difference in the structure of the spermatophores on the genital complex of the female but also the difference in the relative lengths of the posterior processes of the genital complex, the lateral processes on the first abdominal somite and the caudal rami. Additionally, the adult male of A. difficile is described and illustrated and notes provided about the morphology of the sub-adult females and males. Other Alebion species and their hosts collected off South Africa are reported and an updated key to the adult females of the species of Alebion is provided.

Spatial-temporal variation in population structure of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba)in the Scotia Sea, Antarctic in 2016.

The Scotia Sea occupies the highest density of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), which is the traditional fishing ground of krill fishery. However, the population structure of krill differed significantly inter-annually, seasonally and regionally. In order to understand the population dynamics of krill in this region, we analyzed the spatial-temporal variation on population structure of krill using samples collected randomly from fishery survey during January to September 2016. The results showed that sex ratio presented remarkably difference among different months. Females dominated in the population from January to May, but the opposite result occurred from June to September. During the survey period (January to September), juveniles only presented in the January popu-lation, and the percentage of adult females was over 40% and similar to that in February. The proportion of sub-adult females were over 50%, but the proportion of female adults were decreased gradually from March to May. The sub-adult males predominated in the population from June to August. The proportion of sub-adult females increased significantly but the number of male adults decreased in September. Sub-adult females occupied half of population in the Bransfield Strait from February to May. The proportion of spent females (25.6%) was higher than those of individuals with other sexual maturity stages and the gravid females occupied higher percentage of population off northeastern waters of the King George Island in January. From June to September, about half of the population was mature males, but the proportion of mature females was very low off northeastern waters of the South Georgia Island. Maturity stage composition indicated that peak spawning occurred in January and February and that spawning grounds occurred off northeastern waters of the King George Island and in the Bransfield Strait.

Demography and life history of a group of white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth) in western Amazonia.

Species-specific demographic parameters and life history variables are important for understanding how individual primate taxa have adapted to evolutionary and ecological pressures and for conducting interspecific comparisons as well as for conducting population viability analyses and for managing captive populations. Here, we describe results from a 12+ year study of the demographic dynamics of a wild group of white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) living near the Tiputini Biodiversity Station in a largely pristine rainforest in western Amazonia. Across the study period, group size varied between 25 and 37 individuals, and there was a clearly female-biased sex ratio within all age classes. Females were the dispersing sex, as 19 females born into the group disappeared close to reaching adult body size and were presumed to have emigrated, while seven subadult or adult females joined the group during the study period. We estimated the age of dispersal for females at 5.9 ± SD 0.4 years (N = 13). Our study confirms that males are the philopatric sex, as all natal males have remained in the group and some have begun to reproduce, while no males have immigrated. Males began ranging independently from their mothers at ∼4.5 years of age and began copulating with adult females by the age of ∼5 years. Females had long inter-birth intervals (44.2 ± SD 7.8 months; range: 32-64 months, N = 21). Based on our data, female spider monkeys might have longer life spans than males, as only one out of six adult males but 9 out of 11 adult females present in the group in mid 2005 were still present in January 2018. The slow development and extended life histories of wild spider monkeys pose significant challenges for the ability of these primates to cope with habitat degradation and hunting throughout their geographical distribution.

Pelvimetry in Squirrel Monkeys (Saimiri scireus Linnaeus, 1758)

ABSTRACT: Saimiri sciureus is a neotropical primate widely used in research. However, there are still difficulties regarding their reproduction in vivaria due to the high incidence of dystocia. Dystocia in primates can be caused by cephalopelvic disproportion and in Squirrel Monkeys, pregnancy of large fetuses were reported. This paper describes pelvimetry data of adult females and subadults in specimens of Squirrel Monkeys, from a research colony of Para, Brazil. Pelvic radiographs were obtained in ventrodorsal projections and the following measurements were taken: superior bi-iliac diameter (SBID); inferior bi-iliac diameter (IBID); bi-iliac average diameter (BIAD); right diagonal diameter (RDD); left diagonal diameter (LDD); sacro-pubic diameter (SPD); Based on the obtained diameters, the entrance area of the pelvis (EAP) was also calculated. The average values of the pelvic diameters and EAP in adult females were SBID 1.714cm, BIAD 1.957cm, IBID 1.686cm, RDD 2.771cm, LDD 2.764cm, SPD 2.543cm and EAP 3.9056cm2; and subadult females: 1.588cm SBID, 1.850cm BIAD, 1.625cm IBID, 2.50cm RDD, LDD 2.474cm, 1.95cm SPD and 2.8293 cm2 EAP. Saimiri sciureus pelvis is characterized as dolichopelvic. There was statistical significance between the values for adult females and subadults to SBID, BIAD, RDD, LDD, SPD and EAP. The values of SBID and IBID were lower when compared to the published data for the same species. The result found on this paper will serve as a basis for future studies using pelvic measurements and dystocia prediction of neotropical primates and comparison between different vivaria.

Maternal effect and interactions with philopatry in subadult female American black bear, Ursus americanus, den selection

The selection of suitable locations to fulfil life history requisites is an important process that can influence the survival and development of individuals and the persistence of populations. The impacts of site selection are well documented across taxa, but the driving forces behind site selection, especially regarding transgenerational behaviour, are less well understood. Philopatry (the tendency for an individual to remain near its natal home range) and maternal effect (a nongenetic transfer of phenotypes from mother to offspring) are two factors often thought to influence birth site selection behaviours. We investigated black bear, Ursus americanus, transgenerational den type selection behaviour by analysing a long-term data set containing den selection data of 168 2-year-old subadult females during 1984–2013 at four study sites in Maine, U.S.A. to determine whether there is evidence of philopatry and maternal effect on den type selection. Using logistic regression and model selection, we found evidence that both mechanisms play a role in subadult den type selection. Bears that spent the last winter with their mother in a high-protection den were more likely to select that den type as a subadult. Furthermore, in instances of differences in transgenerational den type selection, most subadults (79%) transitioned from a yearling den of lower protection to a subadult den of higher protection. Transitional behaviour might indicate that subadult black bears also account for environmental plasticity and mediate their den selection accordingly, without the benefit of prior independent denning experience. Future research should evaluate the relationship between den type and offspring recruitment to examine whether an individual-level maternal effect is manifested at the population level. Our results suggest that behavioural maternal effects, in part, influence transgenerational den type selection in black bears, and by extension may influence the behavioural phenotypes of other species with extended periods of maternal care.

Aged Black-and-Gold Howler Monkey Female (Alouatta caraya): A Sign of Reproductive Senescence?

Reproductive senescence patterns have been scarcely studied in Neotropical primates. The few studies available on the hormonal profiles of aging female monkeys indicate that the decline of ovarian function in nonhuman primates may resemble the hormonal events associated with the perimenopause in women. In this study, we explore a reproductive hormone profile of an aged black-and-gold howler monkey female (Alouatta caraya) from a wild population in northeastern Argentina and compare this profile with that of a cycling female in the same population. As part of a larger study, we recorded sociosexual behaviors in adult and subadult females belonging to two groups, and we collected urine (n = 877) to determine the sex hormone profile of each female. These samples were analyzed using enzyme immunoassays for estrone conjugates and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG). We found differences in mean values of PdG between the younger (cycling) and the older female. These hormone values were lower in the older female, and she did not show any signs of cyclicity for either reproductive hormone. Our results show that the aging female in this wild population shows signs of ovarian senescence, indicated by low, acyclic levels of progesterone metabolites.

Social status mediates the fitness costs of infection with canine distemper virus in Serengeti spotted hyenas.

The extent to which the fitness costs of infection are mediated by key life‐history traits such as age or social status is still unclear. Within populations, individual heterogeneity in the outcome of infection is the result of two successive processes; the degree of contact with the pathogen (exposure) and the immune response to infection. In social mammals, because individuals holding high social status typically interact more frequently with group members, they should be more often in contact with infected individuals than those of low social status. However, when access to resources is determined by social status, individuals with a high social status are often better nourished, have a greater opportunity to allocate resources to immune processes and therefore should have a smaller chance of succumbing to infection than individuals with low social status.We investigated the risk and fitness costs of infection during a virulent epidemic of canine distemper virus (CDV) in a social carnivore, the spotted hyena, in the Serengeti National Park. We analysed two decades of detailed life‐history data from 625 females and 816 males using a multi‐event capture–mark–recapture model that accounts for uncertainty in the assignment of individual infection states.Cubs of mothers with a high social status had a lower probability of CDV infection and were more likely to survive infection than those with low social status. Subadult and adult females with high social status had a higher infection probability than those with low social status. Subadult females and pre‐breeder males that had recovered from CDV infection had a lower survival than susceptible ones.Our study disentangles the relative importance of individual exposure and resource allocation to immune processes, demonstrates fitness costs of infection for juveniles, particularly for those with low social status, shows that patterns of infection can be driven by different mechanisms among juveniles and adults and establishes a negative relationship between infection and fitness in a free‐ranging mammal. A http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.13059/suppinfo is available for this article.

Male mate choice in a sexually cannibalistic widow spider

Males of the brown widow spider, Latrodectus geometricus (Theridiidae), invest energy in courtship displays and are often cannibalized after mating; accordingly, partial sex role reversal is expected. In this species, subadult females are able to mate and produce viable offspring. In contrast to mature females, these subadult females do not cannibalize their mates after copulation. Nevertheless, when given a choice, males preferred mature over subadult females and older over young mature females. We found no benefit for males in mating with the females of their choice. Older females were significantly less fecund than young mature females, and were not more fecund than subadult females. We tested possible advantages in mating with cannibalistic (mature) females, such as an increased probability of plugging the female's genital duct or longer copulations, or disadvantages in mating with subadult females, such as higher remating risk. None of these explanations was supported. Thus, we lack an adaptive explanation for male preference for mature older females. We suggest that older females produce more pheromone to attract males and that males are thus misled into mating with older, more aggressive and less fecund females.

Hepatic and renal histology and mercury concentrations of North West and North East Greenland narwhals (Monodon monoceros)

ABSTRACTNarwhals (Monodon monoceros) are at the top of the Arctic food web and therefore might biomagnify high total mercury (Hg) concentrations in organs and tissues. The aim of this study was to determine histopathology and Hg concentrations in liver and kidneys from 15 North East Greenland narwhals (3 subadult females, 8 adult females, 3 subadult males, and 1 adult male) and compare data with previous observations of 12 North West Greenland specimens (1 subadult female, 4 adult females, 1 subadult male, and 6 adult males). The zoological length was significantly larger and hepatic and renal concentrations significantly higher in adults compared to subadults. When comparing tissues, the Hg levels were significantly the highest in liver, while a correlation between metal levels in liver and kidneys was positive and significant. Histological examination of renal tissues presented four types of glomerular lesions (capillary dilatation [0–100%], membrane thickening [0–100%], dilatation of space [0–80%], and sclerosis [0–70%]) and two tubular lesions (atrophy/hyalinization [0–40%] and casts [0–60%]). Hepatic tissues exhibited three portal lesions (fibrosis [0–33%], cell infiltrates [0–40%], and bile duct proliferation [0–40%]) and two parenchymal lesions (steatosis [83–100%] and lipid-filled Ito cells [0–33%]). All 12 lesions were found in adult whales from North West Greenland while eight were present in adult whales from North East Greenland. Six lesions were detected in subadults from North East Greenland and four in subadults from North West Greenland. A significantly higher frequency of dilatation and hyalinization of Bowman’s space and capsule and glomerular capillary dilatation was found in adult narwhals from West Greenland. There was no marked difference in Hg concentrations in whales with and without histological lesions. In conclusion, the prevalence of histological changes and Hg levels were the highest in adults and therefore both age and metal are important factors to include when evaluating liver and kidney lesions in narwhals.

Population Status, Distribution, and Threats of <i>Colobus guereza gallarum</i> in Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia

Colobus guereza gallarum is the subspecies of Colobus monkey (Colobus guereza) restricted to the Ethiopian highlands to the east of the Rift Valley. This study was carried out from February to June 2016 to provide data on Population status, distribution, and threats of C. g. gallarum in Bale Mountains National Park. Line transects with 5 km distance were made in all survey areas to estimate the whole population in the area. Field visits and questionnaire distribution were made to assess community perception and threats to the species. The major population of C. g. gallarum was observed in Rira. A total of 116 and 113 individuals were observed in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. There was no significant difference between wet and dry seasons (F= 0.072, df=1, p=0.795) of the population size of C. g. gallarum. Out of 229 individuals of guereza counted in both dry and wet seasons, 44 were adult males, 58 adult females, 42 sub-adult males, 43 sub-adult females and the remaining 42 were young individuals. However, as t-test indicated, here was no significant difference between wet and dry seasons in a number of in this sex and age categories (P>0.70). The male to female ratio was 1.00:1.1, while, the age ratio of young to all other individuals was 1.00:4.45. Here also, the ratio of young to an adult female was 1.00:1.40 and 1.00:1.36 during dry and wet seasons, respectively. The response of communities indicated the presence of positive perception towards the species due to its main importance for tourism and cultural aspect of the communities. Moreover, habitat destruction due to logging, farmland expansion and settlement were main observed threats to species in the area.

Effects of population density and female body mass on litter size in European roe deer at a continental scale

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) has a wide distributional range in Europe and inhabits a broad range of habitats and environmental conditions. Thus, populations of roe deer show substantial variation in demographic parameters. We aimed to determine whether body mass and population density—which influence the reproductive potential of roe deer at a local scale—affect their reproductive potential at a biogeographical scale as well. We reviewed the literature (covering years 1948–2015) on in utero litter size in roe deer from 59 locations in 14 countries in Europe. Across study sites, mean litter size varied from 1.0 to 2.4 embryo or corpora lutea per female, and population density ranged from 4.5 to 73.5 individuals/km2. Mean body mass varied from 11.2 to 20.8 kg in subadult females and from 12.1 to 22.4 kg in adult females. Between 46° and 56° N, body mass of females did not show a significant trend of increase, whereas between 56° and 63° N, it increased with latitude (Bergmann’s rule). We used linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) to analyse the influence of body mass and population density (analysed separately) on litter size. Females with larger body mass produced larger litters, and this pattern was pronounced at both higher and lower latitudes. Higher population densities negatively affected litter size in a sample of all females. This macroecological analysis showed that factors influencing the reproductive potential of roe deer females at local scales produce similar effects at the biogeographical scale.

Reproductive Cycle of Females and Reproduction of the Siberian Salamander (Salamandrella keyserlingii, Caudata, Hynobiidae) on the Coast of the Sea of Okhotsk

The sexual cycle of Siberian salamander females (Salamandrella keyserlingii Dybowski 1870) has been studied in the tundra of the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. Spawning starts soon after the end of wintering (in the second half of May) and ends up in the first half of June. At the end of June, the ovaries show obvious features of a new ovogenic cycle; i.e., pigment starts accumulating in large vitellogenic oocytes. By the end of July, the ovaries in most individuals are already filled with pigmented follicles and the oviduct epithelium is restored. The time from spawning to the appearance of a new generation of mature oocytes lasts a little more than two months (i.e., half of the whole activity season). In the second half of August, the state of the genital system is identical to that in spring before spawning, this proving their annual reproduction. The average fecundity in the studied water bodies varies from 102 to 123 eggs and is comparable to that in other parts of the distribution range. Oogenesis both in the vast majority of females that reach pubescence (subadultus) and in those that spawn in spring occurs simultaneously, but in some subadults it is completed almost a month or a month and a half earlier. By this phenological feature, the female subadults differ considerably from the male subadults, in which completion of spermatogenesis extends much more strongly into the season. A study of the ecology of the Siberian salamander in the conditions of a short season of activity with low temperatures allows for the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk to be considered not as extreme, but, in contrast, rather favorable for its habitation. Many population characteristics in this area are typical for the species in general. The main features of the male and female sexual cycles appear to be similar to those observed in species of the same family that live in the south of the region. The short period of germinal cell development, coupled with the outstanding winter cold hardiness of the species, partially accounts for its unique adaptive potential, which allows it to colonize vast territories of northern Eurasia and successfully thrive in the territories with short and cold summer period.

Assessing the use of the anatomical method for the estimation of sub-adult stature in Black South Africans

Stature estimation is rarely attempted in sub-adults due to the general lack of available standards as a result of the dearth of sufficiently large sub-adult skeletal collections with known demographic information. To overcome this problem sub-adult research mainly relies on modern imaging modalities. In the current study Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans were used to assess the use of the anatomical method for stature estimation in sub-adults. A total of 53 Black South African sub-adult males (n=24) and females (n=29) aged between 10 and 17 years participated in the study by voluntarily completing a full-body MRI scan. A stadiometer was used to measure living stature prior to all MRI scans. Skeletal elements that contribute directly to stature were measured from the MRI scans using OsiriX and summed to compute the total skeletal height. Total skeletal height was calculated using the diaphyseal, maximum and physiological long bone lengths and correlated to living stature using Pearson’s correlations. Subsequently least squares regression equations were generated for the estimation of sub-adult stature. Results indicated strong, statistically significant positive correlations between living stature and total skeletal heights in sub-adult males, females and a combined sex sample. The regression equations were characterized by small standard error of estimates which are comparable to that reported for Black South African adults. Based on these results the anatomical method can be used to accurately describe living stature in Black South African sub-adults. This method is therefore encouraged as it will add valuable information when dealing with unknown sub-adult skeletal remains.

The development and characteristics of feeding behaviour in captive giant pandas

To explore the relationship between the development of feeding behaviour and energy intake for captive giant pandas, food intake, feeding rate, and discrimination time were analysed for 26 pandas grouped by sex and age (cub, sub-adult, adult, and elderly). Feeding rates were significantly different between all age groups, except between elderly and adults. In addition, significant differences were found in discrimination time among the female age groups, and all male age groups except between the adults and sub-adults. Among adults in the same age groups, significant differences between the sexes existed in their feeding rate and discrimination time. Differences in discrimination time existed among elderly, adult and sub-adult females. This study of the dynamic characteristics of the feeding behaviour of captive pandas could provide a theoretical basis for feeding recommendations to improve the success of giant panda breeding programmes.

Hormonal correlates of development and natal dispersal in wild female owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) of Argentina

Pair-living and socially monogamous primates typically do not reproduce before dispersing. It is currently unclear whether this reproductive suppression is due to endocrine or behavioral mechanisms. Cooperatively breeding taxa, like callitrichids, may forego reproduction in natal groups because they reap inclusive fitness benefits and/or they are avoiding inbreeding. However, neither of these benefits of delayed reproduction appear to adequately explain the lack of reproduction prior to leaving the natal group in pair-living monogamous species. In this study, we determined whether wild Azara's owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) in the Argentinean Chaco establish reproductive maturity prior to dispersing. We utilized 635 fecal extracts to characterize reproductive hormone profiles of 11 wild juvenile and subadult females using enzyme immunoassays. Subadult females showed hormone profiles indicative of ovulatory cycling and had mean PdG and E1G concentrations approximately five times higher than juveniles. Contrary to expectations from the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis, female owl monkeys do not delay puberty, but rather commence ovarian cycling while residing in their natal group. Still, subadults appear to have a period during which they experience irregular, non-conceptive cycles prior to reproducing. Commencing these irregular cycles in the natal group may allow them to develop a state of suspended readiness, which could be essential to securing a mate, while avoiding costs of ranging solitarily. Our results indicate that reproductive suppression in female owl monkeys is not due to endocrine suppression. We suggest that adults likely use behavioral mechanisms to prevent subadults from reproducing with unrelated adult males in their natal group.

Males in seemingly female‐like plumage do not mimic females: UV reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation

Manakins (Pipridae) are neotropical birds that usually exhibit delayed plumage maturation (DPM). Thus, while plumage of most adult male manakins is brightly conspicuous, subadult males and females are basically dull‐olive green. Although sexual dichromatism in some bird species may be evident only through UV reflectance, this phenomenon, known as hidden sexual dichromatism, has not been previously studied in manakins to compare subadult males and females. Within this framework, we carried out spectrophotometric analyses in searching for hidden sexual dichromatism in the white‐bearded manakin Manacus manacus, through comparison of UV spectra in females and subadult males in green plumage. Our results revealed UV reflectance in both sexes in green plumage. Moreover, we found UV spectral differences in homologous color patches between sexes, particularly at belly. Since the observed differences may allow intraspecific sex recognition of individuals in green plumage, our results do not support the female‐mimicry hypothesis to explain delayed plumage maturation in the white‐bearded manakin. Although our findings dismiss the female mimicry hypothesis, we cannot state whether these results support the non‐mutually exclusive cryptic and status signaling hypotheses. We propose then, that dull coloration of subadult males may serve both as a cryptic trait and to limit the energetic costs of acquiring the adult plumage before sexual maturity. Meanwhile, differential UV color traits between sexes in green plumage may allow adult males to avoid unnecessary energy expenditures in courtship displays in the presence of males near leks, and to selectively focus their the courtship displays on females. In accordance with the status signaling hypothesis, subadult males can be recognized both as males and subordinates and consequently may practice courtship displays without suffering aggressions by adult males. Our results highlight the importance to include a wider range of spectrophotometric information analyses for testing hypotheses regarding delayed plumage maturation.

Rediscovery of Chonopeltis meridionalis Fryer, 1964 (Crustacea: Branchiura) from Labeo rosae Steindachner in the River Olifants, Mpumalanga, and the taxonomic status of C. victori Avenant-Oldewage, 1991 and C. koki Van As, 1992.

Chonopeltis Thiele, 1900 presently comprises 14 species, it is endemic to Africa and its species show a high degree of host-specificity towards fish families and in some cases, individual fish species. Chonopeltis meridionalis Fryer, 1964 was originally described from Labeo rosae Steindachner collected in the River Nuanetsi in Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe, Limpopo River System. At the time of description C. meridionalis was the most southerly species of the genus. Chonopeltis victori Avenant-Oldewage, 1991 was described from the River Olifants, Mpumalanga, South Africa, which also forms part of the Limpopo River System. The host fish was Labeo rosae and Labeobarbus marequensis (A. Smith), whilst C. koki Van As, 1992 was described from Labeo cylindricus Peters, collected in the River Zambezi, Eastern Caprivi, Namibia. During surveys conducted in 2012, additional material of a species of Chonopeltis was collected from Labeo rosae in the River Olifants. Upon closer examination, the new material was identified as C. meridionalis. Further investigation revealed that C. victori and C. koki share a number of characteristics with C. meridionalis. This paper provides the first scanning electron microscopy of C. meridionalis, includes additional information on fully-mature as well as sub-adult males and females. Finally, it was concluded that C. victori and C. koki are junior synonyms of C. meridionalis.

A new minute species of Pristimantis (Amphibia: Anura: Craugastoridae) with a large head from the Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park in central Peru, with comments on the phylogenetic diversity of Pristimantis occurring in the Cordillera Yanachaga

We describe a new minute species of the genus Pristimantis, P. boucephalus sp. nov., from the Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park, Región Pasco, Peru. The description is based on a freshly collected male specimen found at 2950 m a.s.l. in a cloud forest and four previously unidentified museum specimens consisting of two adult males, one subadult female and a juvenile from the Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park. The new species is mainly characterized by a snout–vent length of 13.4–14.5 mm in adult males (n = 3), and 12.5 mm in the only known subadult female, and is compared morphologically and genetically with other taxonomically and biogeographically relevant species of Pristimantis. The new species is characterized by its small size, disproportionally large head with short snout, absence of a tympanic annulus and membrane, and reddish-copper iris. Phylogenetically it belongs to a speciose clade, an as yet unnamed species group, comprising both montane (Andes, Guiana Shield) and lowland (Amazon) taxa from the northern part of South America. The new species is genetically close to the sympatric P. cruciocularis. Species of Pristimantis occurring in the Cordillera Yanachaga region in the Andes of central Peru are members of six divergent phylogenetic lineages.

Seasonal variation in sexual opportunities of Servaea incana jumping spiders

Male reproduction is commonly constrained by the availability of females, and more specifically by opportunities to fertilise the ova that females carry. For species in which availability and reproductive value of females vary seasonally, males can benefit if able to time their peak reproductive period to match periods of maximum availability and value of females. In Servaea incana jumping spiders, virgin females are at a premium because, once mated, females of this species only rarely accept subsequent suitors. We studied a population of S. incana for 13 months and found strong seasonal patterns in population structure, with a distinct peak of sexual maturation in the autumn months. Consistent with the high value of virgin females, males matured earlier than females (protandry) such that most males were already mature and ready to mate as females began maturing. Further, as is common in jumping spiders, adult males were found to cohabit with subadult females that were about to mature. As the season progressed, subadult females became less abundant and adult males were then sometimes found to cohabit with mated females. Despite protandry, the average size of adult males sampled during the first months of the year was greater than the average size of adult males sampled later, suggesting that adult males maturing at the beginning of the year tend to be larger than adult males maturing later. This finding is inconsistent with a hypothesised trade-off between early development and body size. We discuss the implications of protandry, cohabitation and mating-induced sexual inhibition in the mating system of this spider.

Haematological parameters of pond bats (Myotis dasycneme Boie, 1825 Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in the Ural Mountains

Haematological parameters of pond bats (Myotis dasycneme, Chiroptera), the most numerous bat species in the Ural Mountains, were investigated. Blood samples were collected from 40 wild bats. Ten haematological parameters were determined using an automated haematological analyser. Morphological differentiation of leukocytes was performed in blood smears. No significant differences were revealed in the main parameters of peripheral blood between adult males and females of Myotis dasycneme except for the content of haemoglobin (p = 0.01) and leukocytes (p = 0.02). Data show that significant differences exist between adult and subadult females in erythropoiesis (RBC, HGB, HCT, and MCV). Thus, with age, the number of erythrocytes and the haemoglobin level increase (p < 0.05), but the leukocytic chain remains relatively stable. Changes in haematological parameters were observed in the bats caught in the season of preparation for long hibernation (6–7 months). Conclusion: The blood system of Myotis dasycneme from natural populations in the Ural Mountains was investigated for the first time. It was found that bat growth and development are accompanied by significant changes in red blood cell indicators whereas the white blood cell count remains stable. Adaptive lability of red blood cells in bats allows them to respond adequately to seasonal environmental conditions.