Subadult Females Research Articles

Radiographic Measurements of the Hip Joint in Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus spp.).

Radiographs are useful for the initial evaluation of the hip joints. The information can be utilized for the betterment of animal health or other goals such as anatomic studies and gait analysis, among others. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate radiographic measurements of the hip joint in capuchin monkeys, kept under human care at a reference center for wildlife. Twelve capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) (three adult males, seven adult females, and two sub-adult females) were evaluated. Ventrodorsal radiographic views were taken under chemical restraint. All measurements on the digital images were performed in triplicate by one examiner. None of the measurements evaluated were statistically different between males and females. No statistical differences were found between hind limbs. The mean (±SD) Norberg angle was 104.92° (±2.82°) and the Wiberg angle was 15.26° (±1.86°). The percentage of the femoral head covered by the acetabulum was 68.57% (±3.65%) and the acetabular index depth to width ratio was 54.66% (±3.85%). In conclusion, the radiographic measurements showed certain morphological features of the hip joint in Sapajus spp. that contribute to improving species knowledge.

Sex differences in pelvic size and shape in the striped field mouse from Slovakia

Morphometric analysis and evaluation of 260 striped field mice (Apodemus agrarius) were carried out to identify sexual size dimorphism in pelvic bones regarding the age of individuals and the reproductive history of females. Pelvic size was found to differ between subadult and adult individuals of both sexes. A comparison using the Mann–Whitney U test between the right and left parts of the pelvis showed statistically non-significant differences between the pelvis dimensions. In the inter-sexual comparison of both ages (subadult, adult), statistically significant differences were found for only four traits in adults: length of the coxal bone (LP1), width of the ischiopubis (WP1), length of the obturator foramen (LSF) and width of the obturator foramen (WSF). The two indices (WSF/LSF and WP1/LP2) evaluated clearly reflected changes in the pelvic shape, which were most pronounced in adult mice. For the group of subadult males and females, the differences in measured traits and indices were not as pronounced. Several analyses, such as the Mann–Whitney U test, principal component analysis (PCA) as well as discriminant analysis (DFA), showed sex differences in pelvic morphology and shape, although the two sexes overlapped. Similarly, one-way ANCOVA showed that there was a significant difference between the sexes for the adjusted means. Analyses showed that for a given body mass, it appears that females tend to have larger pelvises. Thus, the sexual dimorphism of females was related to pelvic size and shape in A. agrarius. The breeding history showed differences in pelvic dimensions in following direction: the nulliparous < primigravid < primiparous direction.

Female social dynamics as viewed from grooming networks in the Central Himalayan Langur (Semnopithecus schistaceus).

Enhanced survival and reproduction are associated with an individual's direct and indirect social connections with members of a group. Yet, the role of these connections is little known in a vast range of primate species. We studied female Central Himalayan Langur (CHL) to investigate the link between four specific attributes (dominance rank, age, genetic relatedness, and the presence of females carrying infants) and a female's direct and indirect social relationships. By analyzing grooming networks, we revealed different behavioral strategies: high-ranking females form relationships with many females (high degree), whereas females with dependent infants have strong relationships (high strength and eigenvector). Subadult females are important individuals that hold the social network together (high betweenness), while an immigrant female strategy is to integrate herself into the group by forming strong bonds with females who themselves have strong bonds (high eigenvector). Our study sheds light on how behavioral strategies shape female CHL grooming networks, which may help them to secure fitness and survival advantages.

Behavioural responses of brown bears to roads and hunting disturbance.

Harvest regulations commonly attenuate the consequences of hunting on specific segments of a population. However, regulations may not protect individuals from non-lethal effects of hunting and their consequences remain poorly understood. In this study, we compared the movement rates of Scandinavian brown bears (Ursus arctos, n = 47) across spatiotemporal variations in risk in relation to the onset of bear hunting. We tested two alternative hypotheses based on whether behavioural responses to hunting involve hiding or escaping. If bears try to reduce risk exposure by avoiding being detected by hunters, we expect individuals from all demographic groups to reduce their movement rate during the hunting season. On the other hand, if bears avoid hunters by escaping, we expect them to increase their movement rate in order to leave high-risk areas faster. We found an increased movement rate in females accompanied by dependent offspring during the morning hours of the bear hunting season, a general decrease in movement rate in adult lone females, and no changes in males and subadult females. The increased movement rate that we observed in females with dependant offspring during the hunting season was likely an antipredator response because it only occurred in areas located closer to roads, whereas the decreased movement rate in lone females could be either part of seasonal activity patterns or be associated with an increased selection for better concealment. Our study suggests that female brown bears accompanied by offspring likely move faster in high-risk areas to minimize risk exposure as well as the costly trade-offs (i.e. time spent foraging vs. time spent hiding) typically associated with anti-predator tactics that involve changes in resource selection. Our study also highlights the importance of modelling fine-scale spatiotemporal variations in risk to adequately capture the complexity in behavioural responses caused by human activities in wildlife.

Mother of all bonds: Influences on spatial association across the lifespan in capuchins.

In humans, being more socially integrated is associated with better physical and mental health and/or with lower mortality. This link between sociality and health may have ancient roots: sociality also predicts survival or reproduction in other mammals, such as rats, dolphins, and non-human primates. A key question, therefore, is which factors influence the degree of sociality over the life course. Longitudinal data can provide valuable insight into how environmental variability drives individual differences in sociality and associated outcomes. The first year of life-when long-lived mammals are the most reliant on others for nourishment and protection-is likely to play an important role in how individuals learn to integrate into groups. Using behavioral, demographic, and pedigree information on 376 wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus imitator) across 20 years, we address how changes in group composition influence spatial association. We further try to determine the extent to which early maternal social environments have downstream effects on sociality across the juvenile and (sub)adult stages. We find a positive effect of early maternal spatial association, where female infants whose mothers spent more time around others also later spent more time around others as juveniles and subadults. Our results also highlight the importance of kin availability and other aspects of group composition (e.g., group size) in dynamically influencing spatial association across developmental stages. We bring attention to the importance of-and difficulty in-determining the social versus genetic influences that parents have on offspring phenotypes. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Having more maternal kin (mother and siblings) is associated with spending more time near others across developmental stages in both male and female capuchins. Having more offspring as a subadult or adult female is additionally associated with spending more time near others. A mother's average sociality (time near others) is predictive of how social her daughters (but not sons) become as juveniles and subadults (a between-mother effect). Additional variation within sibling sets in this same maternal phenotype is not predictive of how social they become later relative to each other (no within-mother effect).

A new species of Polydesmidae (Myriapoda, Diplopoda, Polydesmida) from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber.

A new species of the flat-backed millipede family Polydesmidae, Propolydesmus cretaceus sp. nov., is described from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Detailed morphological characters are provided on the basis of 3 well-preserved adults (2 males and 1 females), 2 female subadults, and 14 additional specimens, using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and X-ray micro-computed tomography (CT) with computer-aided 3D-reconstructions. The new species can be placed in the extant genus Propolydesmus. It majorly differs from other congeners due to the stronger gonopod acropodite and the presence of a bipartite gonopod exomerite.

On the identity of Speocarcinus celebensis Tesch, 1918 (Decapoda, Brachyura, Pilumnidae) from Sulawesi

Abstract The type of the poorly known pilumnid crab, Speocarcinus celebensis Tesch, 1918, is redescribed and figured. As Speocarcinus is now known to be a wholly American pseudorhombilid, the generic placement of this Tesch species has been in doubt. Ng (1987) provisionally assigned it to Viaderiana Ward, 1942, but Števčić (2011) decided to place it in a new monotypic genus, Bossacarcinus. The type is a poorly preserved subadult female, and not a male as originally reported. Bossacarcinus celebensis is likely to be a pilumnine, not a rhizopine, and is compared with allied genera like Viaderiana, Ser Rathbun, 1931, Heteropilumnus De Man, 1895, and Xestopilumnus Ng &amp; Dai, 1996.

The feeding behavior and food preferences of siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus Raffles, 1821) at Taman Safari Indonesia Bogor

Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus Raffles, 1821) is a diurnal primate that belongs to the endangered category, according to the IUCN. Siamangs are classified as arboreal and frugivorous animals that selectively choose food. Siamang’s food preferences tend to be determined by the fruit availability in its habitat. One of the efforts to protect siamangs is ex-situ conservation. Feeding in ex-situ conservation should be adjusted to provide in their natural habitat. This study aims to identify siamang’s feeding behavior and food preferences in one of the ex-situ conservation facilities, namely Taman Safari Indonesia Bogor. The objects of observation consisted of two adult males, one adult female, and one sub-adult female. The methods used were instantaneous sampling, focal animal sampling, and ad-libitum sampling—statistical analysis using One-Way ANOVA and Two-Way ANOVA with Tukey’s test. The frequency and duration of siamang feeding behavior differed significantly between age classes, while no difference was based on sex. Food preferences among individuals are influenced by gender. Males prefer fruits such as apples and salak over vegetables, while females prefer soft-stemmed vegetables, namely water spinach and spinach.

Mass animal sacrifice at casas del Turuñuelo (Guareña, Spain): A unique Tartessian (Iron Age) site in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula.

Zooarchaeological analyses of the skeletal remains of 52 animals unearthed in the courtyard of an Iron Age Tartessian building known as Casas del Turuñuelo (Badajoz, Spain) shed light on a massive sacrifice forming part of a series of rituals linked to the site's last period of activity and final abandonment. The rites took place towards the end of the 5th century BCE when both the building (intentionally destroyed) and the sacrificed animals were intentionally buried under a tumulus 90 m in diameter and 6 m high. The main objective of the zooarchaeological and microstratigraphic analyses was to determine the phasing of the sacrificial depositions. Evidence gathered from taphonomic assessments and a series of radiocarbon datings indicate that the sacrifices fall into three consecutive phases spanning several years. The findings of the zooarchaeological analyses clearly point to a selection of equid and cattle males. Adult equids predominate (MNI = 41) followed by adult and sub-adult cattle (MNI = 6). Pigs, in turn, are only represented by a few adults and sub-adult females (MNI = 4). Among the animals is a single dog of undetermined sex between 3 and 4 years of age. The fact that the animals are mostly adults discards the likelihood that they died from natural causes or an epidemic. In addition, the scenographic deposition of certain equids in pairs, as well as evidence of the burning of plant offerings, suggest an intentional ritualistic sacrifice. Nine of the initial depositions of Phase 1 in the SE quadrant were scattered and certain of their bones bear marks characteristic of both prolonged open air exposure and scavengers. Another 31 animals from Phases 1 and 2 are represented by almost complete, articulated skeletons, indicating they were promptly covered. Phase 3, by contrast, reveals both almost complete and partial animals bearing clear signs of processing for human consumption. This study thus sheds light on both the sequence of the animal sacrifices and the protocols linked to rites accompanied by the celebration of banquets. Certain features associated with the sealing of this building under a tumulus offer evidence of the decline of the Tartessian Culture. This study thus advances notions serving to contextualize ritual animal sacrifices in the framework of practice observed at other Iron Age sites in the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere throughout Europe.

New localities and sexual dichromatism in Blue-green eyed Spotted Cuscus Spilocuscus wilsoni Helgen et Flannery, 2004 (Mammalia: Marsupialia: Phalangeridae) from Biak Island, Indonesia

Spotted cuscuses are medium-sized tree-dwelling mammals native to tropical forests of Australo-Papua that primarily feed on fruits and leaves. They belong to the phalangerid genus Spilocuscus (Gray, 1862). The difference in pelage color between male and female Spilocuscus wilsoni has not yet been well described morphologically. In the present study, we describe the coat color of four S. wilsoni individuals: a male adult, a sub-adult male, a sub-adult female, and a juvenile female. Dorsal, lateral, and ventral body section images were captured on camera, and body weight &amp; length, tail &amp; ear length were measured. The adult male S. wilsoni had brown spot and blotch patterns on the dorsal and lateral regions, and the ventral region was plain beige. The sub-adult male had distinct spot patterns without blotches on the dorsal and lateral regions, while the ventral region was plain with a cream base color. The sub-adult female had a mottled pattern that blended with the base color, making a silvery appearance. The female juvenile was spotless throughout, with a foundation hue ranging from creamy to somewhat yellow.

Radiographic measurements of the hind limbs in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.).

Radiographic measurements are a useful tool to assess skeletal health and development in primates. This study aimed to perform radiographic measurements of hind limbs in capuchin monkeys. Twelve Sapajus spp. were used; ten adults and two sub-adults, nine females and three males. The pelvimetry showed that the pelvic inlet area presented mean values of 7.63, 10.23, and 5.43 cm2 for adult males, adult females, and sub-adult females, respectively. The mean inclination angle was 129.45° and the mean values for the mechanical lateral proximal and distal femoral angles were 102.32° and 90.93°, respectively. The mean values for the anatomic lateral proximal and distal femoral angles were 104.59° and 85.98°, respectively. In conclusion, the radiographic measurements proved feasible for hind limb evaluation in Sapajus spp. and can be used for comparison with animals presenting orthopedic lesions.

Environmental and ecological changes influence lifetime trends of reproduction, stress, and stable isotopes reconstructed from female yelloweye rockfish opercula

Abstract Climate change threatens fisheries health through changing ecosystem dynamics; however, the impacts on the physiology and ecology of commercial fish populations are unclear. Here, annually deposited growth increments of female yelloweye rockfish (Sebastes ruberrimus) opercula collected in the Gulf of Alaska were used to successfully reconstruct lifetime (∼1-year resolution) steroid hormone, stable isotope, spawning, and stress data. We assessed how hormone profiles, spawning and distress frequencies related to sea surface temperature (SST), chlorophyll a concentrations as well as climate indices. Further, we assessed whether incorporating indicators of foraging depth and diet, stable isotope values (ẟ13C and ẟ15N), would improve model interpretations. Progesterone and estradiol concentrations decreased with increasing SST, suggesting that increasing SSTs may negatively impact juvenile and subadult females’ reproductive development. Spawning frequency was positively linked to changes in the North Pacific Gyre Oscillation (NPGO) index, potentially timed with favorable conditions for larval survival. This was supported by juveniles having a lower probability of a distress event during positive NPGO years compared to negative NPGO years. While relationships among environmental data and yelloweye rockfish physiology were weak, this study provides insight into the environmental impacts on the lifetime reproduction and stress of a commercially important teleost species.

Using Plasma Vitellogenin in Loggerhead Sea Turtles to Assess Reproductive Maturation and Estrogen-Like Contaminant Exposure.

Vitellogenin (VTG), an egg yolk precursor, is abnormally produced by male and juvenile oviparous species after exposure to estrogens. Plasma VTG in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) helped us understand their reproductive maturation and investigate it as a biomarker of contaminant exposure. The presence of VTG was screened in plasma from 404 loggerheads from the northwestern Atlantic Ocean using a freshwater turtle antibody in western blots. The concentrations of VTG were semiquantified using band intensities calibrated to results from a loggerhead antibody enzyme-linked immunoassay. The detection and concentrations of VTG were in (from highest to lowest): nesting females, in-water adult females, subadult females, smaller females, unknown sex, and males. Loggerheads from this region begin vitellogenesis at ≅77 cm straight carapace length. We classified VTG expression as abnormal in nine male or juvenile turtles. Organochlorine contaminant (OC) concentrations were measured in blood and/or fat biopsies of some turtles. One abnormal VTG female had the second highest fat polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene concentrations compared among 43 VTG-negative juveniles. The nine VTG-abnormal turtles had average blood PCB concentrations 8.5% higher, but not significantly different, than 46 VTG-negative juveniles (p = 0.453). In turtles less than 77 cm, blood PCB concentrations were significantly, but weakly, correlated with semiquantified VTG concentrations (tau = 0.1, p = 0.004). Greater blood OC concentrations were found in adult females than in males, which motivated the creation of a conceptual model of OC, VTG, and hormone concentrations across a reproductive cycle. A decision tree is also provided incorporating VTG as a sexing tool. Abnormal VTG expression cannot conclusively be linked to endocrine disruption caused by these OC concentrations. Studies should further investigate causes of abnormal VTG expression in wild sea turtles. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:1309-1325. © 2023 SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Effects of age, seasonality, and reproductive status on the gut microbiome of Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) at the North Carolina zoo

BackgroundManaged southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) serve as assurance populations for wild conspecifics threatened by poaching and other anthropocentric effects, though many managed populations experience subfertility and reproductive failure. Gut microbiome and host health are inextricably linked, and reproductive outcomes in managed southern white rhinoceros may be mediated in part by their diet and gut microbial diversity. Thus, understanding microbial dynamics within managed populations may help improve conservation efforts. We characterized the taxonomic composition of the gut microbiome in the managed population of female southern white rhinoceros (n = 8) at the North Carolina Zoo and investigated the effects of seasonality (summer vs. winter) and age classes (juveniles (n = 2; 0–2 years), subadults (n = 2; 3–7 years), and adults (n = 4; >7 years)) on microbial richness and community structure. Collection of a fecal sample was attempted for each individual once per month from July-September 2020 and January-March 2021 resulting in a total of 41 samples analyzed. Microbial DNA was extracted and sequenced using the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA bacterial gene. Total operational taxonomic units (OTUs), alpha diversity (species richness, Shannon diversity), and beta diversity (Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, linear discriminant analysis effect size) indices were examined, and differentially enriched taxa were identified.ResultsThere were differences (p < 0.05) in alpha and beta diversity indices across individuals, age groups, and sampling months. Subadult females had higher levels of Shannon diversity (Wilcoxon, p < 0.05) compared to adult females and harbored a community cluster distinct from both juveniles and adults. Samples collected during winter months (January-March 2021) possessed higher species richness and statistically distinct communities compared to summer months (July-September 2020) (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). Reproductively active (n = 2) and currently nonreproductive adult females (n = 2) harbored differentially enriched taxa, with the gut microbiome of nonreproductive females significantly enriched (p = 0.001) in unclassified members of Mobiluncus, a genus which possesses species associated with poor reproductive outcomes in other animal species when identified in the cervicovaginal microbiome.ConclusionTogether, our results increase the understanding of age and season related microbial variation in southern white rhinoceros at the North Carolina Zoo and have identified a potential microbial biomarker for reproductive concern within managed female southern white rhinoceros.

Impact of Road Traffic on Mysore Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus in Keelaveliyur, Tamil Nadu, India

Roads directly affect the wildlife by mortality through collisions with vehicles. Mysore slender loris Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus is distributed in drier regions of southern India. The present paper deals with the impact of road traffic on Mysore slender loris in Keelaveliyur, Tamil Nadu, India. Road kills were recorded from four roads varied in distance from 8 km to 11 km: Keelaveliyur to Thogaimalai, Keelaveliyur to Melapatti, Keelaveliyur to Othakadai, and Keelaveliyur to Pathiripatti. In total, 41 lorises, consisting of 21 adult females, 12 adult males, three subadult females, and five subadult males, were found killed on road by the road traffic from January 2017 to December 2021. Of the four roads differed in traffic volume, more number of roadkills was found on Keelaveliyur to Othakadai road, followed by Keelaveliyur to Pathiripatti, Keelaveliyur to Melapatti, and Keelaveliyur to Thogaimali. Keelaveliyur to Pathiripatty, though with lesser vehicular traffic, was found with more number of roadkills and can be attributed to the availability of more number of trees not only along the roadside but also perpendicular to the road. Besides, abundance of loris was more along this roadside. Extensive removal of trees along the roadside for developmental activities not only reduced the availability of trees but also the population of loris in and around Keelaveliyur in recent years.

Population status of the Hamadryas baboon in and around Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP), Ethiopia

ABSTRACT This baseline study was conducted in and around Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP), Ethiopia, with the objective of investigating the population status of the Hamadryas baboon. While Hamadryas baboon populations have been extensively studied in Africa, no such study has been carried out in this extreme southwest area of their range. Within the SMNP, the Hamadryas baboon is primarily found in the southwestern, northern and eastern parts of the park. The total population was estimated using the total count method at three counting sites. Within those three sites ~495 individual Hamadryas baboons were found. The population comprised ~190 adults, 150 sub-adults, 133 juveniles, and 22 infants of indeterminate age. The study was completed in both the dry and the wet season and showed no significant change in the population or population dynamics seasonally, suggesting that the members of this resident population are the primary occupants of these locations. The age and gender diversity results indicated that there were approximately 72 adult males and 117 adult females, together with 63 sub-adult males and 87 sub-adult females, 54 male and 80 female juveniles, and 22 infants during the wet season. The Hamadryas baboon’s overall sex ratio was 1:1.65 males to females for adults, 1:1.36 for sub-adults and 1:1.46 for juveniles. This study can serve as a benchmark for tracking the population status over time and rank their conservation status in this extreme southwestern range for this species.

The first full-congener analysis of 209 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the blubber of short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) stranded along the coast of Savu Island, Indonesia

Short-finned pilot whales (SFPW) are a group of cetaceans found globally in tropical and temperate seas and are commonly stranded in the group, but the reason behind their stranding is still unknown. No detailed information on the contamination status and bioaccumulation of halogenated organic compounds, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in the SFPW from Indonesian waters has been reported. Therefore, we analyzed all 209 PCB congeners in the blubber of 20 SFPW specimens stranded along the coast of Savu Island, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, in October 2012 to explain the status of contamination, congener profiles, potential risk of PCBs to cetaceans, and the determination of unintentionally produced PCBs (u-PCBs) in the blubber of SFPW. Concentrations of Σ209PCBs, Σ7in-PCBs, Σ12dl-PCBs, and Σ21u-PCBs were between 48 and 490 (mean:240 ± 140), 22–230 (110 ± 60), 2.6–38 (17 ± 10), and 1.0–13 (6.3 ± 3.7) ng g−1 lipid weight (lw), respectively. Congener-specific profiles of PCBs among sex and estimated age groups were observed; relatively high proportions of tri-to penta-CBs in juveniles and highly chlorinated recalcitrant congeners in structure-activity groups (SAGs) in sub-adult females were noted. The estimated toxic equivalency (TEQs) value for dl-PCBs ranged from 2.2 to 60 TEQWHO pg/g lw, with juveniles containing high TEQ values than sub-adults and adults. Although the TEQs and concentrations of PCBs in SFPW stranded along Indonesian coasts were lower than those reported for similar whale species from other North Pacific regions, further research is needed to assess the long-term impact of halogenated organic pollutants on their survival and health.

Activity Budget and Behavioral Repertoire of Mysore Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus in Keelaveliyur, Tamil Nadu, India

Animal, to survive and reproduce, exhibits different types of behaviors and thus studying behavior is vital to fully understand the animal. In the present study, an attempt was made to study the behaviors and activity budget of Mysore slender loris Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus in Keelaveliyur, Tamil Nadu, India. In total, 1284 hours of observation were made on 46 lorises (16 adult males, 12 adult females, five sub-adult males, five sub-adult females, and eight infants) from Jan 2017-Jan 2018. Mysore slender lorises were nocturnal in the habit at Keelaveliyur, Tamil Nadu. Lorises awoke between 17:00 h and 18:00 h and ceased their activities between 07:00h and 08:00h. They were almost inactive between 07:00h to 17:00h. A total of 15 different categories, comprising 45 different behaviors were cataloged for the Mysore slender loris.

Population Status, Diurnal Activity Pattern, Feeding Ecology, and Habitat Association of Colobus Monkey (Colobus guereza) in Saja Forest, Kaffa Zone, Southwest Ethiopia

Colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) are endemic to the Ethiopian plateau, distributed in different ecological habitats such as moist and deciduous forests, savanna woodlands, and montane forests. The population status, diurnal activity pattern, feeding ecology, and habitat association of Colobus guereza were investigated in Saja Forest, southwest Ethiopia, from June 2019 to February 2020, covering both wet and dry seasons. A total of 39 different types of transect were systematically established, distributed in both dense forest and in shrubland. Data were collected for 60 days in total across a wet and a dry season, both at dawn and in the afternoon. A total of 246 ± 39.1 individuals were recorded, of which 132 ± 24.4 and 114 ± 14.7 individuals were recorded during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The population and group sizes did not statistically differ between the wet and dry seasons but shrubland habitat had fewer individuals and smaller groups than forest. Out of the recorded Colobus guereza, 33.5% were adult males, 34.5% were adult females, 28% were sub-adult males, 14.5% were sub-adult females, and 12.5% were juveniles/young. Feeding (29.5%) and resting (19.5%) were the most recorded daily activities for Colobus guereza. Young leaves were the largest (31%) contributor to the diet followed by mature leaves (22%) in both seasons. Other common dietary items were shoots (20%), barks (13%), fruits (11%), and flowers (3%). Colobus guereza were observed feeding on a diverse diet of 26 plant species belonging to 21 genera within 21 families. The habitats of these primates are currently diminishing due to anthropogenic activities such as agricultural expansion, human settlement, livestock grazing, and other forms of human wildlife conflict. Furthermore, guerezas are hunted for their skin and are also major sources of meat for the Menja people in the study area. Therefore, awareness creation for local people towards wildlife conservation is needed.

Population Ecology and Possible Threats to Defassa Waterbuck (Kobus Ellipsiprymnus Defassa) in the Nechsar National Park, Ethiopia

Because of potential conflicts with humans, we investigated the population structure of waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa) in the Nechsar National Park, Ethiopia, from November 2019 to August 2020, using line transect methods. The estimated population was 118 and 104 in the wet and dry seasons, respectively, and averaged 111 (+8) or 0.23/km2. The proportion of each age group averaged 31% adult males, 45% adult females, 12% subadult males, 11% subadult females, and 2% juveniles; the large number of female individuals suggests a healthy and increasing waterbuck population. The distribution of waterbuck sightings among habitat types differed by season (χ2 = 15.97, df = 3,p&lt;0.05). Different conservation measures should be taken to create a conducive environment for waterbuck and large park biodiversity.