Study In Rural Area Research Articles

Educational Status of Mothers and their Pre-natal and Post-natal Care of Infants in Bangladesh

Educational status of the married women and their conception about pre-natal and post natal care of infants in rural and urban Bangladesh differ from each other to a significant scale. This study was conduced on married women aged from 16 years to 35 years who had at least one child bearing the age below one year. The study area of this research was Khulna city ward no. 24 (considered as the urban study area) and Sonka village of Kaliganj upazila in Satkhira (considered as the rural study area) in Bangladesh. The objective of the study was to understand the educational status of mother and their concept about pre-natal and post-natal care in rural and urban Bangladesh. The study is an explanatory research based where survey research design was used mainly. A total of 100 respondents were selected equally from both urban and rural area following purposive sampling method. It was found from the study that 56 percent of the rural mothers and 36 percent of the urban mothers had education up to primary level (equal to 5 Grade). Findings also reveal that 84 percent of the rural mothers and 48 percent of the urban mothers had rest hours below one to a day. The findings suggest that education had a significant influence over the conception of mothers regarding pre-natal and postnatal care of the infants with a significant variance in the rural and urban areas.

Impacts of land use on the vegetation in three rural landscapes of Norway

Long-term and varied land use has had a major influence on the vegetation in rural Norway, and the traditional open landscapes are now being replaced by forests. In the present investigation, we assess and quantify structural vegetation changes caused by changes in land use and climate. Up-to-date actual vegetation maps from three rural study areas were compared with interpreted historical vegetation maps and potential natural vegetation (PNV) models. Our findings indicate that the present vegetation structure is strongly influenced by land use. In the studied sites, 56–66% of the areas presently have another vegetation type than expected from a natural state (PNV). The mean turnover of vegetation types in the study areas during the past 35–40 years was 25%. Our study highlights that the influence of land-use needs to be accounted for when considering the effects of climate change.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in human milk: A biomonitoring study in rural areas of Flanders (Belgium)

To collect information on the concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the rural areas in Flanders (Belgium), 84 breastfeeding mothers were recruited in rural communities in East and West Flanders and Flemish Brabant in 2009–2010. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, organochlorine pesticides, brominated flame retardants, perfluorinated compounds, polychlorinated dibenzodioxines and dibenzofurans, and dioxin-like PCBs were measured in individual milk samples and in a pooled milk sample, while some additional pollutants were only measured in the pooled sample. For most pollutants, the concentrations in this study were lower or comparable to the concentrations measured in the pooled Belgian sample of the WHO human milk study of 2006, except for the pesticides dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DDT (+25% for ΣDDT and metabolites) and trans-nonachlor (+94%), and for the brominated flame retardant hexachlorocyclododecane HBCD (+153%). Perfluorinated compounds were for the first time determined in human milk samples from Belgium and the concentrations were comparable to those from other European countries. Also, interesting associations were found between the concentrations of POPs measured in human milk and personal characteristics as well as dietary habits of the study population. PFOS en PFOA concentrations were significantly higher in milk of primiparous participants compared to mothers who gave birth to their second child. Lower brominated PBDE congeners increased with increasing BMI of the mothers (p=0.01 for BDE 47, p=0.02 for BDE 99 and p=0.02 for BDE 100). Participants consuming milk or dairy products daily had significant higher concentrations of ΣDDTs (p=0.03) and oxychlordane (p=0.047) in their human milk samples.

Exposure to microbial agents in house dust and wheezing, atopic dermatitis and atopic sensitization in early childhood: a birth cohort study in rural areas

Early-life exposure to environmental microbial agents may be associated with development of wheezing and allergic diseases. To assess the association of microbial exposure in rural homes with the risk of asthma, wheezing, atopic dermatitis and sensitization. Birth cohorts of rural children (n = 1133), half from farmer families, were followed up from birth to 2 years of age by questionnaires in five European centres. Endotoxin and extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) of Penicillium and Aspergillus spp. were determined from living room floor and mother's mattress dust samples collected at 2 months of age. Specific IgE against 19 allergens was measured at 1 year of age. Discrete-time hazard models, generalized estimations equations (GEE) and logistic regression were used for statistical analyses. The incidence of asthma was inversely associated with the amount of dust (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.73, 95% CI 0.58-0.93) and the loads (units/m(2)) of EPS (aOR 0.75, 95% CI 0.55-1.04) and endotoxin (aOR 0.79, 95% CI 0.60-1.05) in the mother's mattress. Similar associations were seen with wheezing and with living room floor dust. The microbial markers were highly correlated and their effects could not be clearly separated. The inverse associations were seen especially among non-farmers. The risk of sensitization to inhalant allergens increased with increasing endotoxin exposure from mattress dust. No associations were observed with concentrations (units/g) or with atopic dermatitis. The amount and microbial content of house dust were inversely associated with asthma and wheezing, but due to high correlations between microbial agents and amount of dust, it was not possible to disentangle their individual effects. New ways to better measure and represent exposure to environmental microbes, including indexes of biodiversity, are needed especially among farmers.

Poor quality of antenatal care services—Is lack of competence and support the reason? An observational and interview study in rural areas of Lao PDR

Objectiveto explore the health-care providers' performance and their own perceptions of the ANC services they provide. Design, setting and participantsthis cross-sectional exploratory survey was carried out in 2009 at four district hospitals and 18 health centres in Khammouane and Champasack provinces in rural areas of Laos. Measurements and findingscombinations of quantitative and qualitative methods were used: (i) 59 observations of ANC sessions (components performed and equipment used); (ii) 26 semi-structured interviews with health-care providers engaged in ANC services, interpreted through content analysis. The findings indicated an overall poor quality and performance of ANC services in rural health facilities with lack of routines, scarce or insufficient equipment and limited skills among providers. The health-care providers gave an often pessimistic picture of their competence and motivation to work with ANC. Some articulated a resignation due to lack of feedback from the patients and they expressed a need for support from health-care superiors. Compared to the district hospitals, the health centres were less well-equipped and supplied, and the providers had a heavier workload, because all activities including ANC were carried out by the same provider. The average consultation time for each woman was 5mins. Conclusionsthe quality of ANC services in rural health facilities in Laos was poor due to lack of resources, the providers' limited skills concurrent with inadequate routines and insufficient backup from superiors. Implications for practiceto comply with national and international recommendations for ANC services, our suggestion is to improve the quality of the rural health facilities in Laos by providing basic equipment, support from experienced superiors and in-service training.

The hazard of pregnancy loss and stillbirth among women in Kersa, East Ethiopia: A follow up study

BackgroundAlthough pregnancy loss causes considerable challenge to women’s health, population-based studies in rural areas are not widely available in low-income countries. This study aims to determine the hazard of pregnancy loss and related factors in the rural communities of Ethiopia. MethodologyA prospective community-based study was conducted over a period of 1year. Pregnancy was identified as early as possible by a pregnancy urine test. All pregnant women identified during the screening were followed up at their home until termination of pregnancy or delivery of the neonate. The total follow-up time was 7802 ‘pregnant person months’. A Cox regression analysis was done to estimate the hazard of pregnancy loss. ResultOut of a total of 1438 terminated pregnancies, 143 (9.9%) did not end in live birth, 116 ended due to bleeding and 27 were stillbirths. Whilst the hazard of pregnancy loss was low among women with pregnancy interval of two or more years [AHR 0.3 (95%CI: 0.15, 0.43)], it was high among women having unplanned pregnancy [AHR 2.2 (95%CI: 1.56, 3.11)], among those who complained STI like symptoms during the index pregnancy [AHR 4.5 (95%CI: 2.79, 7.38)] and among those never received antenatal care [AHR 1.8 (95%CI: 1.13, 2.73)]. ConclusionPregnancy loss was higher amongst women experienced unplanned pregnancy, complained STI like symptoms and women who had not attended antenatal care services. RecommendationTo reduce pregnancy loss in rural Ethiopia expanding and promoting the use of family planning, antenatal services and other reproductive health care is necessary.

Female farmers Views to Absorb Future Generation in Farming–A Study of Rural Area of Sikkim in North- Eastern India

The present study has analyzed the existing information about female farmer’s views to absorb future generation in farming in the rural area of Sikkim in North- Eastern India and suggested some points so that the socio-economic condition of the stakeholders can be improvedthus making them understand the dynamics of the existing structures and helping the farming sector make sustainablebyattracting the younger age band.Keeping this in mind, data has been collected from 230 female farmers through interviews using a pre-designed schedule from 24 circles from all the four districts of Sikkim State. Based on their subjective judgments, female farmer’s views to absorb future generation in farminghave been measured and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Some descriptive statistics, such as percentage, mean, standard deviation as well as one sample t-test of inferential statistics is used to interpret the data. The findings of the study revealthat significantly no more number of sample female farmers on an average feel satisfied with the income they get from agriculture. Data in the study area also discloses that significantly no more number of sample female farmers would like to absorb their future generation in agriculture.Results pertaining to these findings have been discussed in this paper.

Removing non-ground points from automated photo-based DEM and evaluation of its accuracy with LiDAR DEM

Three sets of DEM, including LiDAR, stereo photo based DEM, and contour-based DEM, were created using different tools and sources. Because different tools produce different raster data sets, they were reprojected into the same coordinate system and converted to point clouds as vector format, then a triangulated irregular network (TIN) retaining all grid or mass points was created from each point coverage. Corresponding orthophoto involved in extracting stereo photo DEM, classified by object-oriented approach to create vector polygons representing non-ground points (building and vegetation classes) and bare-ground elevation points. Non-ground points were removed from stereo pairs DEM using classified orthophoto polygons, and filled with contour DEM data. Also a 5th order trend surface over photo-based DEM was fitted and non-ground points were removed and filled using local interpolation. It was observed that automated photo-based extraction yields high precision terrain models in a short time, reducing manual editing; their accuracy is strictly related to image quality and terrain features. Results showed that such photogrammetric extracted DEM represents better accuracy along x and y directions than LiDAR does, while LiDAR has the best vertical accuracy, compared to other DEMs. The differences between horizontal errors are large since there were no significant differences between vertical errors of LiDAR and photo-based DEM. This indicates that there is a good correlation between elevation points of DEMs, and a stereo pair-based DEM can be a good substitute, whenever LiDAR is not affordable. This study provides several important insights into the magnitudes and spatial patterns of LiDAR and photo-based DEM errors, further studies need to verify the error extent in more diverse landscape. However, automated photo-based DEM extraction is currently an efficient method for collecting data useful for rural and small study area.

Prevalence of skin diseases in rural Erbil: A community-based study

Background and objectives: Skin diseases in developing world have stimulated a lot of interest over the years because they are potentially preventable and controllable and because skin diseases also serve as an index of community development. The present study was designed to determine the burden of the skin diseases in rural areas of Erbil governorate. Methods: The study is a community based conducted in one of the rural areas of Erbil study, house to house survey method was applied and all the households were examined after explaining for them the process. Data regarding socio-demographic variables were collected from each family by a specially designed questionnaire. All the household members were clinically examined and the dermatological findings were recorded. Results: The study population composed of 542 persons, 262 (48.33%) male and 280 (51.67%) female with male to female ratio 0.94:1. The overall prevalence of skin diseases was 36.3%, 164 (30.2%) of them affected with one disease, and 33 (6.1%) affected with two diseases. Infectious dermatoses have the highest prevalence rate (20.1%), followed by eczematous skin diseases (10.2%). The overall prevalence of skin diseases was higher among females than males; the prevalence of skin diseases was increasing with rising crowding index. Conclusion: The study concluded that the prevalence of skin diseases in rural areas of Erbil governorate is one of the great public health problems that have a significant burden on the population. So, increased public and professional awareness of dermatological care might decrease the size of these disorders and its burden in the community.

Importance of preliminary epidemiology studies in rural areas of developing countries

Importance of preliminary epidemiology studies in rural areas of developing countries

Anaemia among non‐pregnant women: a community based study in rural area of Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal

Anaemia among women is still a public health problem in developing countriesincluding India. A community based, cross ‐sectional study was conductedamong non ‐pregnant women to assess the prevalence of anaemia.The study group was comprised of 528 women between 20 to 49 years fromfour rural blocks located in western parts of Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal.The overall mean level of haemoglobin (Hb) was 10.36±1.61 g/dl. Theresults indicated that slightly incensement of the mean values of Hb concentrationwith advancement in age except the age group of 45 ‐49 years. Prevalenceof anaemia (Hb<11.9g/dl) was very high among the participants(79.55%). In all, 16.66% of women had mild (10 ‐11.9g/dl), 61.93% had moderate(7 ‐9.9g/dl) and only 0.94% had severe anaemic (<7g/dl). The highestfrequency(83.14%) of anaemia was observed among age group of 45 ‐49 andlowest(75.94%) in the age group of 25 ‐29 years. Results also reveals thatrural women have higher prevalence of anaemia(52.84%) with low bodymass index (BMI; <18.5kg/m 2) compared to normal or overweight women.Anaemia is a common problem among women in rural sectors of PaschimMedinipur. However, further studies are required to identify the responsiblefactors which are essential for the effective management of anaemia.

Retention of female volunteer community health workers in Dhaka urban slums: a case-control study

Volunteer community health workers (CHWs) are one approach to addressing the health workforce shortage in developing countries. BRAC, a large NGO in Bangladesh, is a pioneer in using female volunteer CHWs as core workers in its successful health programmes. After 25 years of implementing the CHW model in rural areas, BRAC is now using CHWs in urban slums of Dhaka through Manoshi, a community-based maternal and child health project. However, high dropout rates among CHWs in the slums suggested a need to better understand factors associated with their retention, and consequently recommend strategies for increasing their retention. This mixed-method study included a case-control design to assess factors relating to the retention of volunteer CHWs, and focus group discussions (FGDs) to explore solutions to problems. In total, 542 current and 146 dropout CHWs participated in the survey. Six FGDs were held with groups of current and groups of dropout CHWs. Financial incentives were the main factor linked to CHW retention. CHWs who joined with the expectation of income were almost twice as likely to remain as CHWs. This finding was reinforced by the inverse association between wealth quintile of the CHWs and retention; the poorest CHWs were significantly more likely to stay in the programme than the richest. However, social prestige, community approval and household responsibilities were important non-financial factors associated with CHW retention. Restructuring and expansion of existing financial incentives to better compensate CHWs were recommended by CHWs to improve their retention. Factors found to be important in this study are similar to those from earlier studies in rural areas. While the data indicate that financial incentives are the most commonly discussed factor regarding CHW retention in urban slums, the results also suggest other avenues that could be strengthened to improve their retention.

An investigation of the composition of the urban riparian soil propagule bank along the River Brent, Greater London, UK, in comparison with previous propagule bank studies in rural areas

Most propagule bank research has been conducted in rural areas and has emphasised agricultural soils, although research on rural riparian propagule banks has expanded rapidly over the last decade. This paper presents observations of the species abundance of plant propagules in urban riparian soils along the River Brent, Greater London, UK. The data are analysed to explore changes in species abundance of the propagule bank with depth (0–5 cm compared with 5–10 cm soil layer), with distance from the river (0–1 m, 1–2 m, 2–3 m), and at different locations on the river network. No significant differences were found in propagule abundance with soil depth or distance from the river’s edge, but significantly more species were found in the propagule bank close to the river’s edge. The species composition of the Brent’s propagule bank is then compared with riparian propagule banks from the rural rivers Dove, Frome and Tern, UK. Species richness of the Brent propagule bank samples was generally lower than was found in the three rural rivers and, in total, 21%, 4%, 5% and 4% of observed species were aliens in the Brent, Dove, Frome and Tern soil samples, respectively. When the species present in the Brent’s propagule bank were compared with published data on urban garden soils in another UK city, the latter were found to support a higher number of alien species, suggesting that other propagule sources to urban river systems support lower numbers of alien species in riparian zones than domestic gardens.

Adaptation of a probabilistic method (InterVA) of verbal autopsy to improve the interpretation of cause of stillbirth and neonatal death in Malawi, Nepal, and Zimbabwe

BackgroundVerbal autopsy (VA) is a widely used method for analyzing cause of death in absence of vital registration systems. We adapted the InterVA method to extrapolate causes of death for stillbirths and neonatal deaths from verbal autopsy questionnaires, using data from Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Nepal.MethodsWe obtained 734 stillbirth and neonatal VAs from recent community studies in rural areas: 169 from Malawi, 385 from Nepal, and 180 from Zimbabwe. Initial refinement of the InterVA model was based on 100 physician-reviewed VAs from Malawi. InterVA indicators and matrix probabilities for cause of death were reviewed for clinical and epidemiological coherence by a pediatrician-researcher and an epidemiologist involved in the development of InterVA. The modified InterVA model was evaluated by comparing population-level cause-specific mortality fractions and individual agreement from two methods of interpretation (physician review and InterVA) for a further 69 VAs from Malawi, 385 from Nepal, and 180 from Zimbabwe.ResultsCase-by-case agreement between InterVA and reviewing physician diagnoses for 69 cases from Malawi, 180 cases from Zimbabwe, and 385 cases from Nepal were 83% (kappa 0.76 (0.75 - 0.80)), 71% (kappa 0.41(0.32-0.51)), and 74% (kappa 0.63 (0.60-0.63)), respectively. The proportion of stillbirths identified as fresh or macerated by the different methods of VA interpretation was similar in all three settings. Comparing across countries, the modified InterVA method found that proportions of preterm births and deaths due to infection were higher in Zimbabwe (44%) than in Malawi (28%) or Nepal (20%).ConclusionThe modified InterVA method provides plausible results for stillbirths and newborn deaths, broadly comparable to physician review but with the advantage of internal consistency. The method allows standardized cross-country comparisons and eliminates the inconsistencies of physician review in such comparisons.

SP3-9 An epidemiological study on health provider practices and the factors influencing them in rural area of Udupi taluk, Karnataka, India

ObjectivesTo know the range of services provided by the various health providers, to study their criteria for determining fees for the services provided, to understand their barriers in providing the...

Rural area application of HOMER software for feasibility analysis of hybrid energy system with an improved approach

For a power supply in a remote rural area where a grid supply is infeasible, a hybrid energy system consisting of a renewable energy mix, with a backup generation, could be a viable alternative. Feasibility analysis and determination of optimal combination of such a system is a complex task owing to the uncertain nature of renewable energies, load demand uncertainty, non-linear characteristic of components and interdependency of process components. HOMER software performs this complicated task in an easy and accurate way by economically analysing various possible alternatives and sorting them out for optimality. However the limitation of results for optimality determination based on single criteria has been improved in the present paper using analytic hierarchy process (AHP). A rural study area has been identified for validation of proposed methodology. The approach provides the most optimal hybrid energy system for the selected study area accommodating many aspects of analysis allowing suitable weightage to each of them.

Landscapes in Eastern Germany at a turning point - linkages between population decline, ageing and land consumption

Since 1990, eastern Germany has been facing not only economic transformation but also demographic change. Two components of demographic change are population decline and ageing. They have a strong influence on landscapes, for example on land consumption by housing and industry. Three rural case study areas in eastern Germany are analysed which have been facing a strong population decline and ageing process over the past 20 years. Expert interviews were carried out and statistics as well as documents were analysed. It is argued that demographic change can be seen as a characteristic of instability in social systems. Moreover, it is an important driving force of landscape change, weakening the socio-ecological resilience of landscapes.

Impact and extent of ground water pollution: a case study of rural area in Punjab State (India)

Pollution has affected not only the natural resources of the planet but ground water also. Present paper is emphasised on study to assess the drinking water quality and its impacts on human health in the rural area of a region in Punjab (India). Samples of ground water from five villages have been tested and it has been found that 65% of samples have excessive fluoride, 100% have excessive turbidity, and 55% have excessive total dissolved solids (TDS). A survey has been conducted to assess the impact of drinking water quality; 300 persons participated in the survey from these five villages. Premature greying of hair, hair fall, typhoid, yellowish teeth, joint pain, diarrhoea, constipation were major diseases prevailing in the region. 88% respondents were found aware about the situation. Significant association has been found between education-awareness and income-awareness using chi square test at 5% level of significance.

Challenges and responses to agricultural practices in Gerado area, South Wello, Ethiopia

This paper presents the results of a study in rural areas of Ethiopia into the problems facing peasant farmers and ameliorating those problems so as to produce food security. The research, using both quantitative and qualitative research methods, identified a range of social, economic and natural problems for the agricultural activity of the area. Furthermore, the shortage of draught animals, nutrient depletion and food insecurity were serious for many households. Hence, the local people used various structural and biological land management techniques and they diversified their sources of income to minimise the constraints of land degradation and the impact of food insecurity.

The prevalence of Parkinson’s disease in a rural area of North-East England

Aims and Objectives We have previously reported the age-adjusted prevalence of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease (PD) in North Tyneside, an urban area of North-East England, as 139 cases (95% CI 116 to 162) per 100,000. The aim of this study was to report the prevalence of idiopathic PD in a rural area of North-East England. Methods The same case-finding methodology as that employed in North Tyneside was used to identify cases of PD in an area of North Northumberland with a population of 59,613 at the 2001 UK census. All GPs in the study area were asked to provide details of patients registered with their service that may have PD or were on PD medication. Furthermore, all patients registered with the local PD service or under the care of a consultant neurologist or other relevant secondary care specialist were considered for inclusion. Inclusion in the study required fulfilment of the UK Brain Bank criteria. Results One-hundred-and-six cases were identified (50 women and 56 men), giving crude and age-adjusted prevalence estimates of 178 cases (95% CI 144 to 212) and 142 cases (95% CI 118 to 165) per 100,000 respectively. The age-adjusted prevalence rate within our rural study area was remarkably similar to that seen in other urban UK studies. Only 71 cases (67.0%) were identified through GP records. Conclusions The prevalence of PD rural and urban areas of North-East England is remarkably similar.