Fruiting Structures Research Articles

<I>Zornia melanocarpa</I> (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Dalbergieae), a New Species from Serra do Espinhaço, Brazil, and its Phylogenetic Position in the Genus

Abstract Zornia melanocarpa, a new species of Leguminosae (Papilionoideae, Dalbergieae) from Serra do Espinhaco, Minas Gerais, Brazil, is described and illustrated. The species is characterized by black fruits with white hairs and an absence of bristles, characters unique within the genus. The species is morphologically similar to Z. crinita and Z. hebecarpa, but differs from both by having a shorter inflorescence of 1.2–4 cm (vs. 10–20 and 8–20 cm in Z. crinita and Z. hebecarpa, respectively) and in the size of the plant (7–16 cm vs. 20–60 cm in Z. crinita and Z. hebecarpa), in addition to the black fruits with white hairs. A phylogenetic analysis using molecular data from the nuclear rDNA ITS gene region was performed to verify its position within the genus. Additionally, a survey of leaflet secretory structures and a micro-morphological analysis of fruit structures using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed for the newly described species.

Low‐Temperature Extraction of Jamun Juice (Indian Black Berry) and Optimization of Enzymatic Clarification Using Box‐Behnken Design

AbstractExtracting juice from Jamun is difficult. The fruit consists a seed inside and cell wall consists of high amount of pectin‐protein bond which makes the pulp thicker. The Box‐Behnken design is a type of response surface design which is as useful as the central composite designs but avoiding treatment combinations that are in extreme. The objective of the study is to develop a process for optimization of process parameter to obtain Jamun juice using pectinase enzyme from the strain Aspergillus niger at different temperature (30–50°C), concentration (0.01–0.1% w/v) and time (40–120 min). Physical parameters (yield, turbidity, viscosity, clarity and color) and chemical parameters (polyphenol, protein, TSS and total solid) were evaluated as response variables. Significant regression models with a coefficient of determination (R2) was established with a value more than 0.9. The recommended enzyme for clarification of juice was 0.09% enzyme concentration at 33°C for 75 min.Practical ApplicationsThe juice of Jamun as well as the concentrate has a high‐therapeutic value. A fresh fruit contains all the nutrients needed for good health, but because it may not always be possible to obtain fresh food, preservation becomes necessary. The cell structure of fruit contains protein‐pectin bond and high amount of tannin. Due to this nature removal of juice is difficult. Using of enzyme to clarify the juice not only increase the yield but retained the original physicochemical properties of the juice. To get the juice through out the year and to help the diabetic people this study is useful.

Exopolysaccharide microchannels direct bacterial motility and organize multicellular behavior.

The myxobacteria are a family of soil bacteria that form biofilms of complex architecture, aligned multilayered swarms or fruiting body structures that are simple or branched aggregates containing myxospores. Here, we examined the structural role of matrix exopolysaccharide (EPS) in the organization of these surface-dwelling bacterial cells. Using time-lapse light and fluorescence microscopy, as well as transmission electron microscopy and focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy (FIB/SEM) electron microscopy, we found that Myxococcus xanthus cell organization in biofilms is dependent on the formation of EPS microchannels. Cells are highly organized within the three-dimensional structure of EPS microchannels that are required for cell alignment and advancement on surfaces. Mutants lacking EPS showed a lack of cell orientation and poor colony migration. Purified, cell-free EPS retains a channel-like structure, and can complement EPS− mutant motility defects. In addition, EPS provides the cooperative structure for fruiting body formation in both the simple mounds of M. xanthus and the complex, tree-like structures of Chondromyces crocatus. We furthermore investigated the possibility that EPS impacts community structure as a shared resource facilitating cooperative migration among closely related isolates of M. xanthus.

Preface to “A revision of American Trichilia (Meliaceae)”

Trichilia P.Browne is one of the largest genera of Meliaceae, containing 81 described species in tropical America, 20 species in Africa and 2 species in Madagascar. It is placed in the subfamily Melioideae (Pennington & Styles 1975, Muellner et al. 2003) where it is a well-defined genus with a distinctive floral and fruit structure. It is clearly separated from all other genera of the family by the flowers with a staminal tube of partially or completely fused stamens bearing the anthers at the apex of the filaments or on the margin of the staminal tube and by the fruit which is a 2–3-valved loculicidal capsule containing fleshy seeds partly or completely surrounded by an arillode or rarely a sarcotesta.

Non-destructive characterization and volume estimation of pomegranate fruit external and internal morphological fractions using X-ray computed tomography

In this study, X-ray computed tomography (CT) was used as a non-destructive technique to characterise and quantify the internal structure of pomegranate fruit (cv. Wonderful). A commercial X-ray system with a radiation source of 245 kW and electron current of 300 μA was used to generate two-dimensional (2D) radioscopic images which were reconstructed into three dimensional (3D) images for the quantification and volume estimation of internal structural components of fruit. Segmentation of the internal fruit components (arils, peel, kernel, juice content, air space) and single arils was achieved using StudioMax volume graphics software. The calculated volume of each fruit fraction were 162.5 ± 16.2, 163.9 ± 21.4, 16.4 ± 1.8, 10.9 ± 2.6 mL for arils, peel, kernel and air space, respectively which accounted for 48.1, 48.3, 4.9 and 4.1% of total fruit volume. Furthermore, the calculated volume of juice content was 146.1 ± 16.3 mL per fruit which was equivalent to an average of 89.8% of total aril weight, while a single aril (0.3 ± 0.04 mL) accounted for only 0.09% of whole fruit volume. Destructive validation measurements of each fruit fraction showed similar results to non-destructive data, with volumes of 163.3 ± 15.2, 161.8 ± 20.6, 15.1 ± 1.6, and 12.3 ± 4.4 mL for arils, peel, kernel, air space, respectively, while volumes of juice and single aril were 142.7 ± 16.4 and 0.3 ± 0.09 mL per fruit, respectively. Furthermore, the results showed that fruit physical attributes such as length, diameter and peel thickness were underestimated by an average of 0.14%, 1.13% and 5.27%, respectively, while fruit radius was overestimated by 1.75%. Nevertheless, no significant differences were observed for length, diameter, radius and peel thickness between X-ray CT predicted values and actual measurements. This work has demonstrated the capability of X-ray CT as a non-destructive technique to suitably estimate the fruit volume and its fractions which could be employed for fruit quality systems.

Host Plant Effects on Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Nymphal Development and Survivorship.

Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is a highly polyphagous invasive species and an important pest of orchard crops in the United States. In the Mid-Atlantic region, wild hosts of H. halys are common in woodlands that often border orchards, and H. halys movement from them into orchards poses ongoing management issues. To improve our understanding of host plant effects on H. halys populations at the orchard-woodland interface, nymphal survivorship, developmental duration, and adult fitness (size and fresh weight) on apple (Malus domestica Borkh.), peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch), Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle), and northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa (Warder)) were examined in laboratory studies. Specifically, we investigated nymphal performance on the foliage and fruiting structures of those hosts and on single- versus mixed-host diets, as well as the effects of host phenology on their suitability. Nymphal performance was poor on a diet of foliage alone, regardless of host. When fruiting structures were combined with foliage, peach was highly suitable for nymphal development and survivorship, whereas apple, Tree of Heaven, and catalpa were less so, although nymphal survival on Tree of Heaven was much greater later in the season than earlier. Mixed-host diets yielded increased nymphal survivorship and decreased developmental duration compared with diets of suboptimal single hosts. Adult size and weight were generally greater when they developed from nymphs reared on mixed diets. The implications of our results to the dispersal behavior, establishment, and management of H. halys are discussed.

Characterization of the reproductive mode and life cycle of the whitish truffle T. borchii.

Truffles are the fruiting structures of ascomycetes in the genus Tuber. Because of their economic importance, truffles have been cultivated for many years using artificially inoculated host plants. Nevertheless, the life cycle and reproductive mode of Tuber spp. are still poorly understood. In filamentous ascomycetes, sexual reproduction is genetically controlled by the mating-type (MAT) locus. Among Tuber spp., the MAT locus has been recently characterized in the black truffles Tuber melanosporum and Tuber indicum. Here, by using sequence information derived from these species and from a Tuber borchii expressed sequence tag (EST) showing similarity to the mat1 gene of Alternaria brassicicola, we embarked on a chromosome-walking procedure to sequence the complete MAT region of T. borchii. This fungus produces highly commercialized whitish truffles and represents a model species for addressing basic questions concerning the life cycle of Tuber spp. We show that T. borchii is heterothallic, as its MAT locus is organized into two idiomorphs, each harbored by different mycelial strains. The alignment of the MAT locus from black truffles and T. borchii reveals that extensive sequence rearrangements and inversions occurred between these species. Moreover, by coupling mating-type analyses to karyological observation, we show that mycelia isolated from ascocarps and mycorrhizae are formed by homokaryotic hyphae.

EDX measurements and SEM examination of surface of some imported woods inoculated by three mold fungi

Wood samples of Pinus rigida, Juglans nigra, and Fagus sylvatica were superficially inoculated with three mold fungi (Penicillium selerotigenum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Aspergillus niger). The changes in wood surfaces and the elemental composition were observed by scan electron microscope (SEM) and the electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), respectively. Wood elemental composition was an indication of the growth of mold fungi, in which P. selerotigenum, and A. niger have consumed high amount of carbon (C) of F. sylvatica wood compared to control treatment. Also, P. selerotigenum consumed high amount of C of J. nigra wood compared to the control. While, the three mold fungi showed little changes in C content in P. rigida wood. The nitrogen element in the studied woods was completely consumed by the three mold fungi. Cl element increased in the three woods as inoculated by the three fungi compared to untreated woods. Other elements such as S, Si, Ca, Zn, Cu, and Fe varied in their content in accordance to the interaction among wood species and fungi. The growth of the three mold fungi showed distribution and structures of spores and hyphae covering deteriorated wood surfaces. The study suggests that the three mold fungi metabolize the carbon-rich constituents of the investigated wood species in a proportional manner and produce large fruiting structures that release vast numbers of spores in nature.

How microRNA172 affects fruit growth in different species is dependent on fruit type

ABSTRACTmicroRNA172 (miR172) expression has been shown to have a positive effect on Arabidopsis fruit (siliques) growth. In contrast, over-expression of miR172 has a negative influence on fruit growth in apple, resulting in a dramatic reduction in fruit size. This negative influence is supported by the results of analyzing a transposable element (TE) insertional allele of a MIR172 gene that has reduced expression of the miRNA and is associated with an increase in fruit size. Arabidopsis siliques are a dry fruit derived from ovary tissues, whereas apple is a fleshy pome fruit derived mostly from hypanthium tissues. A model has been developed to explain the contrasting impact of miR172 expression in these two plant species based on the differences in their fruit structure. Transgenic apple plants with extremely high levels of miR172 overexpression produced flowers consisting of carpel tissues only, which failed to produce fruit. By comparison, in tomato, a fleshy berry fruit derived from the ovary, high level over-expression of the same miR172 resulted in carpel-only flowers which developed into parthenocarpic fruit. These results further indicate that the influence of miR172 on fruit growth in different plant species depends on its fruit type.

Moderate Electric Treatment Applications on Pomegranate Juice Production: Yield and Physicochemical Properties

Moderate electric treatment (MET) is based on the growth of pores in cell membranes as a result of electric field applications. In this study, effects of MET applications on yield and quality of pomegranate juice production were investigated. MET was applied to whole pomegranate fruits between 10 and 60 V/cm voltage gradients for 15 s in a pilot scale continues drum-type MET system. Pomegranate juice yields were increased by 2.11–6.99% with electrical treatment. The highest total phenolics were determined at 60 V/cm applications and the highest anthocyanin, antioxidant capacity, ascorbic acid, a value and total color differences were determined at 10 V/cm applications. The electrical treatment significantly decreased the viscosity of juice. It was concluded that MET application could be applied as a pretreatment in pomegranate juice production. Practical Applications Juice extraction is a slow and highly energy-consuming step in the production of fruit juices; thus, various methods have been tried to improve efficiency. And there is an additional effect on juice yield caused by the electric current. Moderate electric treatment (MET) is effective in destroying cellular membranes and different types of electroporation units could be used for the structure of fruits or vegetables and also according to the production method. Through this study, a high potential of MET for the yield and functional improvement of pomegranate juices was found. The drum-type MET system which was used in the study can be used for whole materials without significant temperature increases. In addition, MET treatments can be used to increase the press yield as a nonthermal application and it will eliminate heat exposures, and also drum-type MET system can be adapted to the industrial production lines.

REDUCTION OF BULLWHIP EFFECT ON COMMODITY SUPPLY CHAIN IN FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES WHOLESALE LOTTEMART BOGOR

The purpose of this study was: (1) To identify supply chain structure of fresh fruit and vegetables in LotteMart Wholesale Bogor, (2) Analyze the value of bullwhip effect in the supply chain of fresh fruit and vegetables in LotteMart Wholesale Bogor. (3) Analyze the factors that led to the bullwhip effect in the supply chain of fresh fruit and vegetables at LotteMart Wholesale Bogor, (4) Reduce the bullwhip effect in the supply chain of fresh fruit and vegetables in LotteMart Wholesale Bogor. Method that used in this research are bullwhip effect formula to analyze the value of bullwhip effect and simulation to reduce bullwhip effect with software Arena Rockwell 14.0. The results showed that fresh fruit and vegetables in LotteMart Wholesale Bogor experienced bullwhip effect and also different scenario of time between arivals distribution able to reduce bullwhip effect value in supply chain. Keywords: supply chain, bullwhip effect, arena simulation, LotteMart

Expression of amphicarpy in Vigna lanceolata morphotypes and their hybrids and implications for cultivar development

Amphicarpy is an adaptation that enhances persistence under various environmental stresses, including heavy grazing, through the production of both aerial and underground seeds on the same plant. The trait occurs in several Australian endemic tropical herbaceous legumes, including Vigna lanceolata. The objective of the current research was to compare aerial and underground reproductive structures in six amphicarpic morphotypes of V. lanceolata (four perennials and two annuals), and in hybrids among these morphotypes and also with a seventh, non-amphicarpic perennial morphotype. The aim was to establish how easily the trait might be manipulated in a breeding program to develop improved amphicarpic cultivars, for ley and forage purposes. In the four amphicarpic perennials, the underground fruiting structures formed on leafless underground stems or rhizomes, and in all four, amphicarpy was habitual, i.e. individual plants routinely developed both aerial and underground fruiting structures. In the two annuals, the underground fruiting structures developed on specialised axillary geotropic stems that arose along the prostrate aerial stems and penetrated the soil or leaf litter. One of the annuals exhibited habitual amphicarpy, whereas the other was opportunistic, in that the underground fruiting structures developed only where aerial stems became covered with soil or leaf litter. F1 hybrids between the two annual morphotypes exhibited habitual amphicarpy, indicating dominance of habitual over opportunistic amphicarpy. F1 hybrids between the four perennial amphicarpic morphotypes were all amphicarpic, reflecting the similar expression of the trait in these forms. By contrast, when these four were crossed with the non-amphicarpic perennial, none of the viable F1 hybrids exhibited amphicarpy, suggesting dominance for non-expression. Many of the perennial F1 hybrids were self-sterile, but in the hybrids that were at least partially fertile, many more geocarpic than aerial seeds were produced, raising the possibility that in the wild, amphicarpy may facilitate the persistence of chance natural outcrosses that might otherwise not survive. The results suggested that it would be feasible to develop amphicarpic annual and amphicarpic perennial cultivars for, respectively, ley and forage purposes.

Various PathogenicPseudomonasStrains that Cause Brown Blotch Disease in Cultivated Mushrooms

Brown blotch disease in cultivated mushrooms is caused by Pseudomonas tolaasii, which secretes a lipodepsipeptide, tolaasin. Tolaasin is a pore-forming toxin in the cell membranes, thus destroying the fruiting body structure of mushroom. In this study, we isolated pathogenic bacteria from mushrooms that had symptoms of brown blotch disease. In order to identify these bacteria, their 16S rRNA genes were sequenced and analyzed. Pathogenic bacteria identified as Pseudomonas species were thirty five and classified into five subgroups: P1 to P5. Each subgroup showed different metabolic profile measured by API 20NE kit. Fifty percent of the bacteria were identified as P. tolaasii (P1 subgroup). All five subgroups caused the formation of brown blotches on mushroom tissues and the optimum temperature was 25oC, indicating that they may be able to secrete causal factors, such as tolaasin and similar peptide toxins. These results show that there are at least five different pathogenic Pseudomonas species as blotch-causing bacteria and, therefore, strains from the P2 to P5 subgroups should be also considered and studied as pathogens in order to improve the quality and yield of mushroom production.

Revision of putative Alpinia (Zingiberaceae) fossils from the Paleogene and Neogene of western Europe

The fossil floras described by Dieter Mai and Harald Walther are invaluable for understanding the past plant diversity in Europe, and provide important information on the occurrence of taxa in the fossil record that is critical for evolutionary studies. Among the taxa they recognized were seeds assigned to the extant genus Alpinia Roxb. (Zingiberaceae, Zingiberales). We reinvestigated 28 specimens that were assigned to Alpinia arnensis (Chandler) Mai, Alpinia cf. arnensis, and Alpinia bivascularis Mai from the Ypresian (lower Eocene) of the UK, upper Eocene of Germany, and lower Miocene of Germany using non-destructive synchrotron-based X-ray tomography to reveal internal anatomy. None of the samples studied show an anatomy consistent with extant Alpinia or even Zingiberales. The fossils lack the globose shape, often striate external surface, seed coat structure, operculum, and micropylar collar seen in all Alpinia, and lack the chalazal chamber seen in many Alpinia species. Two specimens from the lower Miocene of Germany showed the structure of fruits of Caricoidea Chandler (Cyperaceae) with a single-layered exocarp, thick mesocarp, and sclerified endocarp. The other specimens are recognized as Carpolithes albolutum nom. nov. (incertae sedis) from the Ypresian of the UK, C. phoenixnordensis sp. nov. (incertae sedis) from the upper Eocene of Germany, C. bivascularis comb. nov. (incertae sedis) from the lower Miocene of Germany as well as indeterminate tegmens from the lower Miocene of Germany. This reinvestigation demonstrates that there is, as yet, no confirmed fossil record for the extant genus Alpinia. Furthermore, at least four different taxa are recognized from what had been two extinct species, enhancing our understanding of these important European Cenozoic carpofloras.

Viscoelastic finite element analysis of the dynamic behavior of apple under impact loading with regard to its different layers

Annually, large quantities of apple are destroyed and suffer from quality loss because of bruising and other mechanical damages during harvesting, transportation, storage and packaging. Bruising due to impact is one of the most important reasons for the quality loss in the fresh fruit market. Regarding to the accuracy and economic justification, Finite Element Method (FEM) is one of the best ways of investigating the effective factors in bruising produced as a result of impact. In this research, FEM is used to study the dynamic impact to apple. For soft and relatively large objects like apple, the dynamic waves are absorbed by the body of the object through decreasing the kinetic energy during the impact. The amount of energy absorption is dependent upon the viscoelastic properties, geometric size of the object during the collision, and collision velocity. Therefore, in such materials, contact area and the induced stress in contact region are time dependent. In finite element modeling, a nonlinear time-dependent contact is considered. Through the use of finite element models of a typical fruit, the apple, some collision processes of the fruit were studied. The 3D FEM models were created to illustrate, as closely as possible, the typical geometrical structure of an apple fruit, containing the basic inhomogeneous structure of the fruit. In the current study, using Finite element method, the behavior of the various layers of skin, cortex and core of apple was analyzed applying impact test to collision of the fruit with a flat rigid plate as well as the collision of an apple with another apple. The different layers of apple such as skin, cortex and core have not been yet analyzed dynamically so it plays a remarkably important role. The results showed that the parameters of displacement, velocity, acceleration, stress and hydrostatic pressure in the collision of apple to apple were less than that of apple to rigid object at the velocity of 1m/s. Also, changes of these parameters were maximum in a skin and minimum in a core.

Volatile profile, nutritional value and secretory structures of the berry-like fruits of Hypericum androsaemum L

Hypericum androsaemum, also known as Tutsan, produces fleshy and berry-like fruits that ripen from red to shiny black. The essential oil and aroma components of the red and black berries were investigated by GC–FID, GC–MS, and HS-SPME–GC–MS. The nutritional profile of the red and black berries in terms of proteins, carbohydrates, crude fiber, ascorbic acid, mineral content and fatty acid composition was also investigated. Finally, the morphological and histochemical study of fruits identified the histolocalization of the complex metabolite mixture produced. Results showed that monoterpene hydrocarbons gave the major contribution to the fruit aroma, with limonene as the most representative compound, even though some differences were found between red and black berries. Nutritional analysis highlighted a relevant content of ascorbic acid (135.7mg/100g) in red berries. The morphological and histochemical analysis showed that the fruit secretion is produced in numerous translucent glands that originated from the ovarian mesophyll and arranged in concentric rings.

Reinforced Conductive Confinement of Sulfur for Robust and High-Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Sulfur is an attractive cathode material in energy storage devices due to its high theoretical capacity of 1672 mAh g(-1). However, practical application of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries can be achieved only when the major barriers, including the shuttling effect of polysulfides (Li2Sx, x = 3-8), significant volume change (∼80%), and the resultant rapid deterioration of electrodes, are tackled. Here, we propose an "inside-out" synthesis strategy by mimicking the structure of the pomegranate fruit to achieve conductive confinement of sulfur to address these issues. In the proposed pomegranate-like structure, sulfur and carbon nanotubes composite is encapsulated by the in situ formed amorphous carbon network, which allows the regeneration of electroactive material sulfur and the confinement of the sulfur as well as the lithium polysulfide within the electrical conductive carbon network. Consequently, a highly robust sulfur cathode is obtained, delivering remarkable performance in a Li-S battery. The obtained composite cathode shows a reversible capacity of 691 mAh g(-1) after 200 cycles with impressive cycle stability at the current density of 1600 mA g(-1).

Two New Species of Loranthaceae from Central Peru

Two new species of Loranthaceae are described and illustrated from the Cerros del Sira highland in central Peru. From the department of Pasco, province of Oxapampa, Gaiadendron coronatum Kuijt is distinguished as small parasitic shrubs, its flowers with distinct calyx lobes that develop into a tubular structure in fruit. Gaiadendron coronatum is closely related to the only previously known species for the genus, G. punctatum (Ruiz & Pav.) G. Don. From the department of Ucayali, province of Coronel Portillo, Peristethium grahamii Kuijt is distinguished by its 5-merous flowers, the papery scales at the base of a determinate inflorescence, and by its essentially sessile anthers.

Characterising kiwifruit (Actinidia sp.) near skin cellular structures using optical coherence tomography

Pre-harvest growing conditions during the development of fruit have impacts on fruit quality at the time of harvest and during storage. These impacts may result in differences in the skin properties of the fruit and some sub-surface cellular structural changes, which have potential effects on postharvest fruit quality and storability. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-destructive imaging method that enables acquisition of three-dimensional (3D) images of sub-surface structures of semi-transparent and turbid objects. This technology is a potential tool to provide new information about the structural nature of horticulture products. This work used five commercial kiwifruit cultivars, ‘G3’, ‘G9’, ‘G14’, ‘Hort16A’ and ‘Hayward’, where ‘Hayward’ was also manipulated with different orchard management practices (crop load and girdling), to investigate the properties of the layers of structures immediately underneath the periderm. Fruit samples were harvested at commercial maturity and then 3D OCT images of the skins were captured prior to fruit quality assessment. An automated image processing protocol was established to enable visualisation and characterisation of larger near skin cellular structures in the outer parenchyma tissue. There was no obvious differentiation between the observed large cells and the stone cells that are present in Actinidia chinensis cultivars. Significant differences in the microstructures of the sub-surface cells were found amongst five commercial kiwifruit cultivars. In general ‘G3’, ‘G14’ and ‘Hayward’ had larger and greater numbers of large sub-surface cells than ‘G9’ and ‘Hort16A’. The volume fraction of large cells in the near skin tissue was lower for the yellow-fleshed cultivars (‘G3’, ‘G9’ and ‘Hort16A’) in comparison to the green-fleshed cultivars (‘G14’ and ‘Hayward’). Low crop load increased maximum large cell length. However, no other effects of crop load and girdling were observed on the microstructures of the large cells in ‘Hayward’. Overall, OCT was an efficient non-destructive technique that can be utilised to reveal the structures of skin and sub-surface cellular layers with high resolution. The developed image processing protocol was suitable for the processing of large data sets with acceptable accuracy. However, more work should be carried out to overcome image artefacts caused by surface lenticels and trichomes. Limitations caused by low penetration depth should also be improved to allow better representation of the whole fruit structure.

Morphological, anatomical, and ultrastructural changes inVaccinium corymbosumfruits during ontogeny

Given their attractive appearance and flavour, as well as high antioxidant content, Vaccinium corymbosum L. fruits are greatly appreciated by consumers. These quality traits are primarily dependent on pomological characteristics of the cultivar. Vaccinium corymbosum ‘Bluecrop’ is one of the most popular and valuable cultivars of highbush blueberry; however, its fruits become soft shortly after harvesting. Changes in the fruit structure and in the content of phenolic compounds and, in particular, emergence of some traits related to fruit firmness and shelf life, were analysed in the surface layers of ‘Bluecrop’ fruits from the stage of flowering through the fruit set stage to harvest maturity using light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The study involved investigations of qualitative and quantitative changes in the development and microstructure of epicuticular wax, cuticle, epidermis, hypodermis, and stone cells, and analysis of the presence of tannins and anthocyanins. Moreover, it was found that the development of many traits associated with fruit firmness and shelf life started in the initial period of ontogeny. These results can be useful for the researchers developing new cultivars in detection of early manifestations of developmental features of specific quality traits and in comparative analyses of blueberry cultivars differing in fruit firmness and shelf life.