Urban Landscape Structure Research Articles

Urban landscape pattern analysis based on 3D landscape models

Landscape ecology, urban landscape ecology in particular, has become one of the most promising subjects in geographical research. Among studies of urban planning, land cover change, sustainable development and so forth, more and more focus has been placed on understanding the spatial composition and structure of urban landscape. Recent research has proved that landscape patterns at the vertical directions exert important influence on specific ecological processes. As a result, it is of great importance to analyse comprehensive urban landscape patterns from a 3D perspective.This paper proposes a framework on the realization and application of 3D landscape models. Due to its high resolution in both horizontal and vertical directions, airborne Lidar (Light detection and ranging) is an ideal tool to establish 3D landscape models. The use of 3D landscape models enables researchers to design proper 3D landscape metrics and analyse 3D urban landscape patterns. A case study was conducted to compare landscape patterns between two sites from both 2D and 3D perspectives. A set of 3D landscape metrics was employed and the results proved that vertical landscape patterns, which mainly feature the spatial structures and distribution of buildings and trees, were better understood based on 3D landscape models.

Zooming into temperature conditions in the city of Leipzig: How do urban built and green structures influence earth surface temperatures in the city?

Urban landscape and land-use structure, particularly that of built space, were found to have a significant impact on environmental exposures, e.g., on the level and spatial distribution of particle and noise exposure in cities. Climate change will increase the frequency, duration and intensity of heat waves. Hence, the question arises: how do urban structures affect the shape and intensity of urban temperature conditions? To answer this question, multiple urban structures have been quantified in terms of their structural patterns and configuration using the landscape metric (LSM) approach. The results of a linear regression analysis showed that both the edge density and patch size ratio are significantly correlated with the spread and intensity of temperatures across all urban built structures. The analysis shows that the higher the proportion and structural complexity of the built area, the higher are the morning and evening surface temperatures. LSMs were found to be very well suited as analysis models of the site-specific temperature impact beyond the aggregate city level. Hence, they may serve as a planning tool for urban adaptation measures to climate change.

A Study on the Strategy of Constructing Urban Water System in North Cold City - A Case Study of Dolon-Nuur Town, Inner Mongolia

Urban water system is the lifeblood of urban development and it has special effects in the urban landscape structure and function. In urban Planning and construction, water system should be carefully constructed under the water decides urban concept and the principles of overall coordination, ecological priority and local characteristics to realize the harmony of human and nature. The master plan of Dolon-nuur Town discusses the strategy of constructing urban water system in north winter city, and put forward to build perfect urban water structure, rich waterfront function, pay attention to flood control and detention, conform the monsoon, waterfront greening collocation, make full use of resources of ice and snow and avoid the pollution, in view of the cold city features.

A Study of Tourism Developing Plan on Qufu Ancient City from an Experiential Perspective

Nowadays the tourist pattern has evolved into an advanced stage of experimental tourism. Based on the features of experimental tourism, the present study aims to conduct a deep analysis and cogitate on the tourism developing in Qufu ancient city. After analyzing on the existed problem at the present, the author put forward correspondent solutions for it, as strengthening an easily recognizable urban landscape structure, creating a diversity experimental atmosphere, providing an advanced tourism residential condition and building beautiful urban lighting landscape for Qufu.

A hierarchical patch mosaic ecosystem model for urban landscapes: Model development and evaluation

Urbanization effects on ecosystem functions are both important and complex, characterized by scale multiplicity, spatial heterogeneity, and intensive human disturbances. Integrating the hierarchical structure of urban landscape pattern with ecosystem processes through simulation modeling can facilitate our understanding of human–environment interactions in urban environment. Current ecosystem models often focus on plant physiological and biogeochemical processes in homogeneous land covers, incapable of addressing the structural complexity in urban landscapes with multiple anthropogenic drivers across a range of spatial scales. Here we present the Hierarchical Patch Mosaic-Urban Ecosystem Model (HPM-UEM), a multi-scaled model that explicitly treats spatial pattern and hierarchical structure of urban landscape by incorporating both top-down controls and bottom-up mechanisms in urban environment. By addressing six hierarchical levels from individual plant to the urbanized region, HPM-UEM provides a “hierarchical ladder” to scale up local ecosystem functions across the nested urban land hierarchies (i.e., land cover, land use, landscape, and the urbanized region), and facilitate linking ecosystem processes and socioeconomic drivers. By organizing human influences in a spatially nested hierarchical patch mosaic structure, HPM-UEM models the complex spatiotemporal pattern of multiple environmental constraints on urban ecosystem functions. The model was evaluated based on extensive datasets developed by the Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) network, especially the Central Arizona-Phoenix (CAP) LTER. Model testing results showed that HPM-UEM predicted both C fluxes and spatial pattern of C stocks with reasonable accuracy. HPM-UEM enabled us to assess spatial patterns and multiple-scaled dynamics of C cycle of the urban landscape, revealing the distinct productivities and C densities of different urban land types across different spatial scales. Sensitivity analyses indicated that future environmental changes and landscape modifications could have strong and complex effects on urban ecosystem functions. By matching ecological processes, anthropogenic environmental controls, and land and socioeconomic dynamics based on hierarchical levels, HPM-UEM could be coupled to multiple-scaled urban land-use models, climate models, and socioeconomic models to gain a comprehensive understanding of urban biogeochemical cycles.

Comparing Traditional Urban Form in China and Europe: A Fringe-Belt Approach

Urban growth and transformation across the world are presenting great challenges for the comprehension and management of urban landscape change. Comparative urban morphology makes it possible to identify urban forms common to different geographical regions, while helping to distinguish unique historical characteristics and developments important for towns and cities in the hunt for place identity and prestige. The fringe-belt concept provides a frame of reference for depicting, explaining, and comparing the physical structure and historical development of urban landscapes. The walled cities of Pingyao, China and Como, Italy possess well-preserved historical urban environments that reflect the urban development traditions of their respective cultures. Newly available cartographic evidence and field work reveal critical differences between the embedded fringe belts of the two cities resulting from different historico-geographical dynamics. Pingyao's single composite fringe belt and Como's three distinct belts challenge current understanding of urban structural processes and argue for more focused urban landscape management.

Temporal Analysis of Incompatible Land-Use and Land-Cover: The Proximity between Residential Areas and Gas Stations in Bucharest Suburban Area

Abstract Incompatible land-use and land-cover indicate the trend in territorial planning and generate instability and conflicts leading to degradation in terms of environmental quality. Urban landscape structure of Bucharest suburban area has changed lately, especially due to expansion of residential areas, increasing the risks of a chaotic urban development. The consequences of this residential expansion have led to malfunctions, outlining a disadvantage area due to environmental problems. In this context, residential areas are frequently located in the proximity of gas stations in Bucharest suburban area. This paper presents the relation between residential areas and gas stations in order to evaluate causes that led to their proximity. Results have pointed out using a number of 60 gas stations (21 gas stations in residential areas and 39 in non-residential areas) the causes and the temporal dynamics of locational conflicts, suggesting that unplanned development and residential agglomeration are the main consequences of territorial conflicts. In this respect of incompatible land-use and land-cover expansion, it is required an evaluation and hierarchy in order to start new coherent plans of space development.

Decline in the diversity of willow trunk-dwelling weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) as a result of urban expansion in Beijing, China

Beijing, the capital and second largest city of China, expanded in a typical concentric pattern. The urbanized area consists of five concentric zones, which are based on the city’s ring road system. Willow trees (Salix spp.) are commonly planted and abundant in the city. In this study, we determined the effects of urbanization on willow trunk-dwelling weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) in a 3-year survey. Our results indicated that species richness and abundance decreased from outskirts to the urban center. It was estimated that within a 30-km limit, species richness and abundance might be reduced by 0.9 species and 59.3% of individuals per 5 km toward urban center. Landscape variables (e.g., the proportion of impervious surface and distance to urban center) explained 59.4% of species richness and 43.9% of species abundance. Local variables (e.g., plant resources and site size) explained only 4.9% of species richness and 4.7% of species abundance. Our results show that there is a negative relationship between urban expansion and weevil diversity. There are several ways in which such detrimental effects on biodiversity could be mitigated: (1) Optimization of urban landscape structures, as well as vegetation planting; (2) increasing connectivity between urban remnants and natural landscapes in the outskirts of the city; and (3) limiting the proportion of impervious surface in inner urban zones.

Improving the Natural and Built Ecological Systems in an Urban Environment

This study investigates the application of landscape ecology in planning and design of urban ecological systems. The ecological approach to landscape planning and the concepts of designing and implementing ecological systems have gained increasing attention in the last two decades. However, the ecological systems of urban environment need more research to consider built and natural patches and corridors together and to provide proper and applicable strategies that meet all of the diverse aspects of planning and designing sustainable urban systems. This approach could help in defining sustainable landscape development, aiming for a balance between both physical and natural systems in urban areas. This research is focused on Tehran’s metropolitan area as a case study to provide a relationship between landscape ecology and urban planning and design to propose a model for analyzing and providing strategies and policies for conserving and resorting urban ecological systems. The spatial structure of green and natural areas are studied and categorized based on the patch-corridor-matrix model. Overlaying the selected layers helped provide strategies for conservation and reclamation, and policies to improve the structure and function of urban landscapes. The strategies to restore the ecological structure and to develop its functionin Tehran metropolitan area are based on structural congruence, aggregate with outliers, local compensation and indispensable patterns.

Global analysis and simulation of land-use change associated with urbanization

A combination of rapid population growth and an accelerating demographic shift from rural to urbanized habitats has resulted in urbanization becoming an increasingly global phenomenon. Two alternate hypotheses describing urban landscape trajectories suggest urbanization is either leading to more homogeneous global patterns or urbanization has dichotomous trajectories of increasing dispersal or coalescence. To better understand the global variation in urban land-cover patterns and trajectories we described the variation in urban landscape structure for 120 cities distributed throughout the world assessed at circa 1990 and 2000. We coupled these data to a low-dimensional neighborhood based model of urban growth using a data-model fusion approach. Trajectories of urban growth were assessed using both the original data and model projections to 2030. The patterns of landscape change were related to both the rate of growth and income. The historical patterns of change showed a trend of increasing landscape complexity and this trend was projected to continue. Urban rate of growth was closely related to the change in several landscape metrics. Income was associated with landscape dynamics and this effect interacted with city size. Large cities were less sensitive to the income effect than small cities. Along with changes to the magnitude of each metric, the overall variation in metrics between years generally exhibited a decrease in variability and this variability was projected to continue decreasing. These findings supported the hypothesis that urban landscapes are becoming more homogeneous and that the dispersal-coalescing dichotomy represent endpoints rather than alternate states of urban growth.

Landscape as a continuum: an examination of the urban landscape structures and dynamics of Indianapolis City, 1991–2000, by using satellite images

The majority of the vast literature on remote sensing of urban landscapes has adopted a ‘hard classification’ approach, in which each image pixel is assigned a single land use and land cover category. Owing to the nature of urban landscapes, the confusion between land use and land cover definitions and the constraints of widely applied medium spatial resolution satellite images, high classification accuracy has been difficult to achieve with the conventional ‘hard’ classifiers. The prevalence of the mixed pixel problem in urban landscapes indicates a crucial need for an alternative approach to urban analyses. Identification, description and quantification, rather than classification, may provide a better understanding of the compositions and processes of heterogeneous landscapes such as urban areas. This study applied the Vegetation–Impervious Surface–Soil (V‐I‐S) model for characterizing urban landscapes and analysing their dynamics in Indianapolis, USA, between 1991 and 2000. To extract these landscape components from three dates of Landsat Thematic Mapper/Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (TM/ETM+) images in 1991 1995 and 2000, we used the technique of linear spectral mixture analysis (LSMA). These components were further classified into urban thematic classes, and used for analysis of the landscape patterns and dynamics. The results indicate that LSMA provides a suitable technique for detecting and mapping urban materials and V‐I‐S component surfaces in repetitive and consistent ways, and for solving the spectral mixing of medium spatial resolution satellite imagery. The reconciliation between the V‐I‐S model with LSMA for Landsat imagery allowed this continuum landscape model to be an alternative, effective approach to characterizing and quantifying the spatial and temporal changes of the urban landscape compositions in Indianapolis from 1991 to 2000. It is suggested that the model developed in this study offers a more realistic and robust representation of the true nature of urban landscapes, as compared with the conventional method based on ‘hard classification’ of satellite imagery. The general applicability of this continuum model, especially its spectral, spatial and temporal variability, is discussed.

Influence of urban landscape structure on bird fauna: a case study across seasons in the city of Valencia (Spain)

Studies on bird fauna of urban environments have had a long history, but the potential of studies mapping the distribution of birds in cities probably has not fully developed. The bird fauna of the municipality of Valencia (Spain) was studied to determine the influence of urbanization on bird species richness and abundance. Birds were censused during winter and the breeding season of years 1997–1998 in 197 squares measuring 49 ha each from a rural and an urbanized area. Across seasons the number of species decreased around 40% in the city compared with the rural landscape surrounding it. Such pattern could be attributed to the low number of farmland species capable to use the habitats inside the city, and the limited ability of urban parks in attracting woodland species. In the urban landscape, the influence of the dimensions and spatial arrangement of habitat patches was outweighed by the amount of each habitat per square. Bird richness and the abundance of most species were negatively related with the amount of built-up habitat per square and positively with the amount of urban parks, and of habitat diversity. Conversely, bird fauna was largely independent of mean park size per square especially during winter, indicating that at the landscape scale even small patches of habitat could play an ecological role. Conservation of urban bird diversity could benefit of two complementary strategies: (i) the protection of the surrounding rural landscape from urban development; (ii) habitat enhancement within the city. Particularly, a proper design and habitat management of urban parks could improve their suitability for urban bird fauna.

The structure of urban landscapes: strengthening research and practice

Methods of articulating the historico-geographical structure of urban landscapes are fundamental to urban morphology and have considerable, but insufficiently recognized, potential in planning. M. R. G. Conzen made a major contribution to their development, notably between the late 1950s and the late 1980s. He demonstrated in traditional British towns and cities how the way in which the urban landscape is historically stratified, reflecting the distinctive residues of past periods, gives rise to a hierarchy of morphological regions or urban landscape units. In the past 20 years, there have been applications and adaptations of Conzen’s methods, and demonstrations of their potential in conservation and heritage planning, in other types of urban areas and other parts of the world, including the Far East. However, it is essential that urban morphological regionalization is grounded in sensitivity to the dynamics of the urban landscape and, especially in comparisons of different urban areas, that there is awareness of the level of resolution at which urban landscape units are delimited. Carefully applied, this method can make an important contribution to meeting a major challenge facing urban morphology today: the provision of sound bases for comparative research and its application in planning practice.

An object‐oriented approach for analysing and characterizing urban landscape at the parcel level

This paper presents an object‐oriented approach for analysing and characterizing the urban landscape structure at the parcel level using high‐resolution digital aerial imagery and LIght Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data. Additional spatial datasets including property parcel boundaries and building footprints were used to both facilitate object segmentation and obtain greater classification accuracy. The study area is the Gwynns Falls watershed, which includes portions of Baltimore City and Baltimore County, MD. A three‐level hierarchical network of image objects was generated, and objects were classified. At the two lower levels, objects were classified into five classes, building, pavement, bare soil, fine textured vegetation and coarse textured vegetation, respectively. The object‐oriented classification approach proved to be effective for urban land cover classification. The overall accuracy of the classification was 92.3%, and the overall Kappa statistic was 0.899. Land cover proportions as well as vegetation characteristics were then summarized by property parcel. This exercise resulted in a knowledge base of rules for urban land cover classification, which could potentially be applied to other urban areas.

TRANSFORMATION OF URBAN LANDSCAPEIN LATGALE REGION ON CHANGE OF 20- 21 CENTURIES

The paper deals with transformation of urban landscape in the 2 cities and 12 towns of Latgale region on change of 20-21 centuries, in the period from 1990 to 2007. Article provides information about factors and social economics processes that have influence on urban landscape structure and quality. The paper have a look at changes of land use structure, demographical processes, urban environmental quality, dynamics of urban transportation system and intensity of construction works in the cities and towns of Latgale region. The results establish disparities between scopes and directions of urban landscape transformation among different ranks of urban settlements.

Assessing landscape perception of urban rocky habitats

The urban landscape structure and its changing characteristics have produced various effects on natural and human systems of its own and surroundings [Gilbert OL. The ecology of urban habitats. London: Chapman & Hall; 1991 [1]; Rebele F. Urban ecology and special features of urban ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 1994;4:173–87 [2]; Rees WE. Urban ecosystems: the human dimension. Urban Ecosystems 1997;1:63–75 [3]; Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML, Grove JM, Nilon CH, Pouyat RV, Zipperer WC, et al. Urban ecological systems: linking terrestrial ecological, physical, and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2001;32:127–57 [4]; Hope D, Gries C, Zhu WX, Fagan WF, Redman CL, Grimm NB, et al., Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2003;100(15):8788–92 [5]; Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML, Grove JM. Resilient cities: meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms, Landscape and Urban Planning 2004;69(4):369–84 [6]; Luck M, Jianguo Wu J. A gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern: a case study from the Phoenix metropolitan region, Arizona, USA. Landscape Ecology 2002:17(4):327–39 [7]; Angold PG, Sadler JP, Hill MO, Pullin A, Rushton S, Austin K, et al., Biodiversity in urban habitat patches. Science of the Total Environment 2006;360(1–3):196–204 [8]]. By environmental literature conducted recently, it has been evidently comprehended that urban life quality for mankind and others can be improved by serving these systems with green and living elements. This study is to investigate urban rocky habitats that have special natural characteristics and that can be implicated for urban green areas. But these habitats have been considered as nature splits withstanding against the urban pressures by means of the unplanned build-up activities foremost, and road construction, poor quality or neglected remnants. Therefore, this study presents the environmental perception and preferences of urban rocky habitats which are threatening within excessive urbanization and human use of natural areas in the context of the city of Trabzon, Turkey. So, a total of 20 habitats selected from urban and surroundings were surveyed by using a questionnaire and landscape assessment approach. With surveying performed on 204 participants, visual preferences, landscape attributes and proposed management options for urban nature conservation were determined. The χ 2 -test results revealed clearly that the demographic and expertise status of the participants were correlated with the preferences for types of rocky habitat scene and management options. The scenes with natural elements and less human disturbance obtained higher scores on visual preferences than any of the urban rocky scenes lacking these characteristics. Also, in the quantitative phase, factor analysis based on principal component structure revealed the ‘ visual and spatial effects’, the ‘ usage and arrangement’, the ‘ naturalness and ecological value’, and the ‘ functionality’ components of the scenes. Consequently, some implications for the effective and efficient planning and development of urban nature conservation by assisting the better understanding of the various patterns of landscape preference, choice and satisfaction in habitats under the present study were suggested.

Avian ecology and urban landscape structures

Avian ecology and urban landscape structures

Assessment of ASTER land cover and MODIS NDVI data at multiple scales for ecological characterization of an arid urban center

Study of the detailed structure and ecological functioning of urban and peri-urban systems is intensifying due to increasing concentration of the human population into urban centers. Much of this increase is expected to occur in semiarid to arid cites. Data from new high spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution satellite-based sensors promise to increase our understanding of global urban ecological and climatic processes and improve city and land planning capabilities. Two of these sensors, the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), provide an opportunity to compare urban spatial structure (distribution and configuration of discrete land cover/land use classes on the landscape) with contemporaneous measurements of surface biophysical composition at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. Such combined measurements are useful for modeling changes to urban climate, hydrology, and biogeochemical cycles caused by modification of the landscape. We compare gridded landscape metrics derived from expert system land cover classification of ASTER to corresponding MODIS NDVI data at scales of 250 m/pixel, 500 m/pixel, and 1 km/pixel in order to determine which of these scales is optimal for monitoring of urban biophysical processes and landscape structure change. Weak positive and negative correlations between NDVI and landscape structure were observed at all three spatial scales for the metrics Class Area, Mean Patch Size, Edge Density, and Interspersion/Juxtaposition Index.

Inventory and conservation of breeding waterbirds at Ojo de Liebre and Guerrero Negro lagoons, Baja California Sur Mexico

Surveys made in 1997/98 at the lagoons of Ojo de Liebre (Scammon´ s Lagoon) and Guerrero Negro, Baja California Sur, Mexico, showed that changes have occurred since 1926 in the species composition of the community of breeding waterbirds, in the arrangement of their nesting substrate and in their population size. Of 17 species breeding in the area in 1926, we found 12 nesting there during our survey. Additional data from other researchers allowed us to conclude that 16 species have nested in the area after 1984. Only one species (Sterna elegans) has not been reported nesting; however, it is still considered to be a local breeder. Three species (Egretta alba, Larus atricilla and Falco peregrinus) became new established breeders. Most of the species that breed on the islands within Scammon´ s Lagoon have a stable population or have increased in number. None of the egret species breeding in 1926 in marshes outside the islands currently nest there. Four species (Sterna antillarum, Charadrius wilsonia, Charadrius alexandrinus and Rallus longirostris) breed on the islands or at other sites in the lagoons and vicinity. Despite development in the region, the natural wetlands and open-water coverage remain almost unchanged. Natural nesting substrates are mostly confined to the islands and are vulnerable to land predators, wave erosion and direct human disturbance. These factors may have caused the shifting of nesting spots from one island to another and to other suitable nesting sites on the lagoons, the urban landscape, the saltworks and man-made structures. Breeding waterbirds have been granted limited protection through reserves and single-species conservation programs. We suggest guidelines to enhance their protection as a community in the context of El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve.

The Changing Pattern of Urban Population Density and Landscape Structure in Metro Manila

In this paper, we first discussed the pattern of spatial distribution of population in Metro Manila using Clark model. Secondly, the relationship between population density and landscape features was examined using GIS data. Through this study, the following findings were obtained as the character of urbanization in Metro Manila; the process of urbanization and suburbanization were observed at the same time during this 50 years, landscape features change rapidly where population density scores higher than 200 persons/ha and is about 10km from the center of Metro Manila, and such boundary areas are now facing the urbanization and the problems caused by urbanization.