Structure Of Glycosaminoglycans Research Articles

A case study: Glycosaminoglycan profiles of autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) tissue improve as the tissue matures

BackgroundAutologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) has been used to treat cartilage defects in thousands of patients worldwide with good clinical effectiveness 10–20years after implantation. Information concerning the quality of the repair cartilage is still limited because biopsies are small and rare. Glycosaminoglycan structure influences physiological function and is likely to be important in the long term stability of the repair tissue. The aim of this study was to assess glycosaminoglycans in ACI tissue over a two year period. MethodsBiopsies were taken from one patient (25years old) at 12months and 20months post-ACI-treatment and from three normal cadavers (21, 22 and 25years old). Fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis (FACE) was used to quantitatively assess the individual glycosaminoglycans. ResultsAt 12months the ACI biopsy had 40% less hyaluronan than the age-matched cadaveric biopsies but by 20months the ACI biopsy had the same amount of hyaluronan as the controls. Both the 12 and 20month ACI biopsies had less chondroitin sulphate disaccharides and shorter chondroitin sulphate chains than the age-matched cadaveric biopsies. However, chondroitin sulphate chain length doubled as the ACI repair tissue matured at 12months (3913Da±464) and 20months (6923Da±711) and there was less keratan sulphate as compared to the controls. ConclusionsAlthough the glycosaminoglycan composition of the repair tissue is not identical to mature articular cartilage its quality continues to improve with time.

Polyamines release the let-7b-mediated suppression of initiation codon recognition during the protein synthesis of EXT2.

Proteoglycans (PGs), a family of glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-protein glycoconjugates, contribute to animal physiology through interactions between their glycan chains and growth factors, chemokines and adhesion molecules. However, it remains unclear how GAG structures are changed during the aging process. Here, we found that polyamine levels are correlated with the expression level of heparan sulfate (HS) in human skin. In cultured cell lines, the EXT1 and EXT2 enzymes, initiating HS biosynthesis, were stimulated at the translational level by polyamines. Interestingly, the initiation codon recognition by 43S preinitiation complex during EXT2 translation is suppressed by let-7b, a member of the let-7 microRNA family, through binding at the N-terminal amino acid coding sequence in EXT2 mRNA. Let-7b-mediated suppression of initiation codon depends on the length of 5′-UTR of EXT2 mRNA and its suppression is inhibited in the presence of polyamines. These findings provide new insights into the HS biosynthesis related to miRNA and polyamines.

P044 <break /> Altered deposition and structure of glycosaminoglycans contributes to tissue remodelling in pulmonary fibrosis?

P044 <break /> Altered deposition and structure of glycosaminoglycans contributes to tissue remodelling in pulmonary fibrosis?

Biological function of unique sulfated glycosaminoglycans in primitive chordates.

Glycosaminoglycans with unique sulfation patterns have been identified in different species of ascidians (sea squirts), a group of marine invertebrates of the Phylum Chordata, sub-phylum Tunicata (or Urochordata). Oversulfated dermatan sulfate composed of [4-α-L-IdoA-(2-O-SO3)-1→3-β-D-GalNAc(4-OSO3)-1]n repeating disaccharide units is found in the extracellular matrix of several organs, where it seems to interact with collagen fibers. This dermatan sulfate co-localizes with a decorin-like protein, as indicated by immunohistochemical analysis. Low sulfated heparin/heparan sulfate-like glycans composed mainly of [4-α-L-IdoA-(2-OSO3)-1→4-α-D-GlcN(SO3)-1 (6-O-SO3)-1]n and [4-α-L-IdoA-(2-O-SO3)-1→4-α-D-GlcN(SO3)-1]n have also been described in ascidians. These heparin-like glycans occur in intracellular granules of oocyte assessory cells, named test cells, in circulating basophil-like cells in the hemolymph, and at the basement membrane of different ascidian organs. In this review, we present an overview of the structure, distribution, extracellular and intracellular localization of the sulfated glycosaminoglycans in different species and tissues of ascidians. Considering the phylogenetic position of the subphylum Tunicata in the phylum Chordata, a careful analysis of these data can reveal important information about how these glycans evolved from invertebrate to vertebrate animals.

Highlights from Recent Cancer Literature

Highlights from Recent Cancer Literature

Structural requirements of glycosaminoglycans for facilitating amyloid fibril formation of human serum amyloid A

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a precursor protein of amyloid fibrils. Given that heparan sulfate (HS), a glycosaminoglycan (GAG), is detected in amyloid deposits, it has been suggested that GAG is a key component of amyloid fibril formation. We previously reported that heparin (an analog of HS) facilitates the fibril formation of SAA, but the structural requirements remain unknown. In the present study, we investigated the structural requirements of GAGs for facilitating the amyloid fibril formation of SAA. Spectroscopic analyses using structurally diverse GAG analogs suggested that the fibril formation of SAA was facilitated irrespective of the backbone structure of GAGs; however, the facilitating effect was strongly correlated with the degree of sulfation. Microscopic analyses revealed that the morphologies of SAA aggregates were modulated by the GAGs. The HS molecule, which is less sulfated than heparin but contains highly sulfated domains, exhibited a relatively high potential to facilitate fibril formation compared to other GAGs. The length dependence of fragmented heparins on the facilitating effect suggested that a high density of sulfate groups is also required. These results indicate that not only the degree of sulfation but also the lengths of sulfated domains in GAG play important roles in fibril formation of SAA.

Bioengineering Proteoglycan‐based Matrices For Blood Contacting Applications

Proteoglycans and their glycosaminoglycan chains are functional components of the extracellular matrix that modulate interactions with other extracellular matrix molecules, as well as with cells and growth factors. Perlecan is an abundant proteoglycan in the vascular basement membrane and contains a C‐terminal domain V (DV) with one glycosaminoglycan attachment site and an α2β1 integrin binding site. Perlecan can only be obtained in low abundance from natural sources, thus alternative sources are needed for therapeutic applications. The aim of this research was to bioengineer DV and to incorporate it into biomaterials for blood‐contacting applications.Human DV was expressed in the human embryonic kidney cell line, HEK‐293 and purified by immunoaffinity chromatography and biochemically characterized with respect to protein core, glycosaminoglycan structure and yield. Human primary endothelial cell, smooth muscle cell and platelet adhesion were assessed.DV was produced as two populations decorated with either chondroitin sulfate or heparan sulfate. The level of heparan sulfate substitution was increased by culturing the cells with higher glucose concentrations in the medium while there was no effect on the level of chondroitin sulfate. DV was produced with a yield of 2 mg/L, which is a 2.5 fold increase in the yield of endothelial‐derived perlecan.The proteoglycan forms of DV were effective in promoting endothelial, but not smooth muscle cell or platelet adhesion. In the absence of glycosaminoglycans DV supported the adhesion of endothelial cells and platelets via integrin α2β1. However, while smooth muscle cells adhere to perlecan in the absence of glycosaminoglycan chains, these cells did not adhere to DV in the absence of glycosaminoglycans. This suggests that the proteoglycan forms of DV have potential roles in encouraging endothelialization of materials while inhibiting unwanted activities associated with platelet and smooth muscle cell adhesion. We have shown this to be the case for the full length perlecan when trialed in an ovine vascular graft model.We are currently developing methods to combine DV with various biomaterials including a silk fibroin substrate through various chemical crosslinking methods. Early work in this area suggests that we can fine tune how both the protein and glycosaminoglycan components of DV are presented to maintain the vascular cell‐selective activities of DV.Support or Funding InformationFunding provided by the Australian Research Council

Conservation of anatomically restricted glycosaminoglycan structures in divergent nematode species.

Heparan sulfates (HS) are glycosaminoglycans of the extracellular matrices and characterized by complex modification patterns owing to sulfations, epimerization, and acetylation. Distinct HS modification patterns have been shown to modulate protein-protein interactions during development in general and of the nervous system in particular. This has led to the heparan sulfate code hypothesis, which posits that specifically modified HS epitopes are distributed in a tissue and cell-specific fashion to orchestrate neural circuit formation. Whether an HS code exists in vivo, how specific or how evolutionarily conserved the anatomical distribution of an HS code may be has remained unknown. Here we conduct a systematic comparison of HS modification patterns in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans using transgenic expression of 33 different HS-specific single chain variable fragment antibodies. We find that some HS modification patterns are widely distributed in the nervous system. In contrast, other HS modification patterns appear highly cell-specific in both non-neuronal and neuronal cells. Some patterns can be as restricted in their localization as to single neurites or synaptic connections between two neurons. This restricted anatomical localization of specific HS patterns can be evolutionarily conserved over a span of 80-100 million years in the divergent nematode species Caenorhabditis briggsae suggesting structural and, possibly functional conservation of glycosaminoglycan structures similar to proteins. These findings suggest a HS code with subcellularly localized, unique glycan identities in the nervous system.

Proteoglycans and axon guidance: a new relationship between old partners.

Neural circuits are formed with great precision during development. Accumulated evidence over the past three decades has demonstrated that growing axons are navigated toward their targets by the combined actions of attractants and repellents together with their receptors. It has long been known that proteoglycans, glycosylated proteins possessing covalently attached glycosaminoglycans, play a critical role in axon guidance; however, the molecular mechanisms by which proteoglycans regulate axon behaviors remain largely unknown. Glycosaminoglycans such as heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate are large linear polysaccharides composed of repeating disaccharide units that are highly modified by specific sulfation and epimerization. Recent biochemical and molecular biological studies have identified the enzymes that are involved in the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycans. Interestingly, many mutants lacking glycosaminoglycan-synthesizing enzymes or proteoglycans in several model organisms show defects in specific nerve tract formation. In parallel, detailed biochemical studies have identified the molecular interactions between axon guidance molecules and glycosaminoglycans that have specific modification in their sugar chains. This review summarizes the structure and function of axon guidance molecules and glycosaminoglycans, and then tries to combine the knowledge from these studies to understand the role of proteoglycans from a new vantage point. Deciphering the sugar code is important for understanding the complicated nature of proteoglycans in axon guidance. Neural circuits are formed by the combined actions of axon guidance molecules. Proteoglycans play critical roles in regulating axon guidance through the interaction between signaling molecules and glycosaminoglycan chains attached to the core protein. This paper summarizes the structure and functions of axon guidance molecules and glycosaminoglycans and reviews the molecular mechanisms by which proteoglycans regulate axon guidance from a new vantage point. This article is part of the 60th Anniversary special issue.

Hyaluronidase and Chondroitinase.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are important constituents of the extracellular matrix that make significant contributions to biological processes and have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. GAG-degrading enzymes with different activities have been found in various animals and microorganisms, and they play an irreplaceable role in the structure and function studies of GAGs. As two kind of important GAG-degrading enzymes, hyaluronidase (HAase) and chondroitinase (CSase) have been widely studied and increasing evidence has shown that, in most cases, their substrate specificities overlap and thus the "HAase" or "CSase" terms may be improper or even misnomers. Different from previous reviews, this article combines HAase and CSase together to discuss the traditional classification, substrate specificity, degradation pattern, new resources and naming of these enzymes.

The sweet spot: how GAGs help chemokines guide migrating cells.

Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides that occur both at the cell surface and within extracellular matrices. Through their ability to bind to a large array of proteins, almost 500 of which have been identified to date, including most chemokines, these molecules regulate key biologic processes at the cell-tissue interface. To do so, glycosaminoglycans can provide scaffolds to ensure that proteins mediating specific functions will be presented at the correct site and time and can also directly contribute to biologic activities or signaling processes. The binding of chemokines to glycosaminoglycans, which, at the biochemical level, has been mostly studied using heparin, has traditionally been thought of as a mechanism for maintaining haptotactic gradients within tissues along which cells can migrate directionally. Many aspects of chemokine-glycosaminoglycan interactions, however, also suggest that the formation of these complexes could serve additional purposes that go well beyond a simple immobilization process. In addition, progress in glycobiology has revealed that glycosaminoglycan structures, in term of length, sulfation, and epimerization pattern, are specific for cell, tissue, and developmental stage. Glycosaminoglycan regulation and glycosaminoglycan diversity, which cannot be replicated using heparin, thus suggests that these molecules may fine-tune the immune response by selectively recruiting specific chemokines to cell surfaces. In this context, the aim of the present text is to review the chemokine-glycosaminoglycan complexes described to date and provide a critical analysis of the tools, molecules, and strategies that can be used to structurally and functionally investigate the formation of these complexes.

Editorial: Antimicrobial Peptides and Complement - Maximising the Inflammatory Response.

Striking commonalities in the roles of complement and antimicrobial peptides have recently been reported; their abilities to apply selection pressures on a bacterial population in the bloodstream (1), to contribute to enhanced phagocytosis of opsonized bacteria (2), and to interactively determine skin microbiome (3). Evolutionary roots for complement proteins and antimicrobial peptides are ancient (4). Predating the avenue of somatic recombination, antimicrobial peptides and complement have further emerged as modulators of cell activities that are part of the adaptive immune response. Therefore, antimicrobial peptides and complement were logical contenders for a focused analysis to distil from a wide complexity a range of overlapping and distinct activities that could serve to maximize local and systemic inflammatory responses. The task was ambitious. Aiming to draw together experts and junior scientists in two distinct areas of inflammatory responses, an e-book series was produced which in its entirety challenges oligofactorial analyses in health and disease and points to a gain in embracing more fully the interconnection of inflammatory reactions and their components using, as examples, complement and antimicrobial peptides. Functional analytical approaches may be derived from genomic analyses using cross species comparisons for antimicrobial peptides and is demonstrated in Machado and Ottolini’s article (5). Significant copy number variations for defensin genes in and between populations make these exciting modulators of inflammation, mucosal immunity, and infection responses. In the complement system, gene duplication leading to C4A and C4B and functional polymorphisms in the MBL gene (in humans) provide variability in the fluid phase of complement activation. In two parts, Roumenina’s team provide a delicately researched state-of-the-art evaluation of complement activation and its regulation as well as a summary of current understanding of the mutlifaceted roles of complement anaphylatoxins in inflammation (6, 7). Bevington’s group put forward a case in support of further avenues of research to identify pH sensing molecules and understand pH-dependent contact and complement system activation and their interactions (8). The activity of antimicrobial peptides is also influenced by pH conditions (9). It appears therefore that more rigorous measurements of pH in in vivo models may help to discern a level of regulation that is currently still underappreciated. Day and Clark’s group remind that sialic acids or glycosaminoglycan structures on the cell surface or in the extracellular compartment provide interfaces, which can determine propagation or inhibition of complement activation and be the basis for tissue-specific susceptibilities to targeting binding of complement proteins (10). Interestingly, in Drosophila, engagement of the sulfated polysaccharide chains of heparin sulfate proteoglycans leads to expression of antimicrobial peptides (11). Stadnyk’s group presents a program of work to test hypotheses or inferred models of interaction, which are relevant in understanding pathomechanisms of colitis, but also contribute to our understanding of mucosal tolerance (12). Much has yet to be gained from studying the luminal role of antimicrobial peptides vs. the mucosal role of complement to maintain the mucosal barrier (13). In the periodontal pocket, Porphyromonas gingivalis, its reciprocal interaction with complement and antimicrobial peptides during periodontitis is associated with altered local microbiota, bone loss, and evasion to atherosclerotic plaque (14). Chemokines, for which direct antimicrobial activities have been shown, are the focus in Sahingur and Yeudall’s treatise on molecular determinants in the development and progression of oral cavity cancers. Produced in response to a polymicrobial insult, locally produced chemokines are relevant to epithelial dysplasia and osteoclast activity and, furthermore, shape the tumor microenvironment (15). Al-Rayahi and Sanyi juxtapose complex activities of antimicrobial peptides and complement components in a wide range of cancers and remind us of early tumoricidal work using bacterial extracts (16). Rocha-Ferreira and Hristova discuss for the neonatal brain the role of complement and antimicrobial peptides in the dynamics and extent of inflammation and their potential as targetable mediators of hypoxia-induced brain damage (17). A cautionary tale is told by Schuerholz et al. and Thompson et al., who deal with antimicrobial peptides and complement, respectively, in human sepsis (18, 19). Interactions of host to pathogen are multimodal and immune markers alter over the duration of disease. It seems reasonable to propose that parallel measurement of humorally accessible complement and antimicrobial peptides, players of the innate immunity bridging the adaptive immunity, will yield greater understanding of the dynamic host response during sepsis. Finally, Zimmer et al. systematically present activity signatures of complement and antimicrobial peptides in homeostasis and disease (20) and point to a need to distinguish other activities, which relate to routine design of recombinant protein expression (21). In their entirety, the contributions, by providing succinct and critical summaries, primary data and viewpoints, achieve to deepen insight in and understanding of complex matters involving and surrounding antimicrobial peptides and complement. The mind may become more prepared to consider a multipronged approach to health and disease, impacting on both, experimental and therapeutic designs.

A fine structural modification of glycosaminoglycans is correlated with the progression of muscle regeneration after ischaemia: towards a matrix-based therapy?

Critical limb ischaemia often leads to amputation of the limb and potential mortality. Moreover, there are still significant problems with current therapeutic treatments, according to poor revascularisation of degenerated tissue probably due to modifications within the microenvironment. This study is focused on the changes of structure and bioactivity of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), especially heparan sulphate (HS) and chondroitin sulphate (CS) in rat Extensor Digitorum Longus (EDL) muscle after ischaemia. Male Wistar rats were subjected to ischaemic-injury by ligation of the neurovascular trunk accompanying EDL-tendon. After 4, 8, 15, 21, 60 and 90 d, the rats were sacrificed and the muscles were collected and submitted to histological, biochemical and gene expression assays. We demonstrated that ischaemia induced modification of expression of enzymes involved in GAG biosynthesis which correlated with significant changes in HS and CS structural features such as size and sulphation pattern. These major structural changes are associated to modifications of GAG abilities to bind growth factors and to modulate cell activity. Moreover, a CS hallmark of injury is maintained as well after the regeneration process. Finally, we showed the relevance of the role of this glycanic matrix remodelling, since a GAG mimetic treatment accelerated muscle repair after ischaemia.

Differentiating chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycans using collision-induced dissociation; uronic acid cross-ring diagnostic fragments in a single stage of tandem mass spectrometry.

The stereochemistry of the hexuronic acid residues of the structure of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) is a key feature that affects their interactions with proteins and other biological functions. Electron based tandem mass spectrometry methods, in particular electron detachment dissociation (EDD), have been able to distinguish glucuronic acid (GlcA) from iduronic acid (IdoA) residues in some heparan sulfate tetrasaccharides by producing epimer-specific fragments. Similarly, the relative abundance of glycosidic fragment ions produced by collision-induced dissociation (CID) or EDD has been shown to correlate with the type of hexuronic acid present in chondroitin sulfate GAGs. The present work examines the effect of charge state and degree of sodium cationization on the CID fragmentation products that can be used to distinguish GlcA and IdoA containing chondroitin sulfate A and dermatan sulfate chains. The cross-ring fragments (2,4)A(n) and (0,2)X(n) formed within the hexuronic acid residues are highly preferential for chains containing GlcA, distinguishing it from IdoA. The diagnostic capability of the fragments requires the selection of a molecular ion and fragment ions with specific ionization characteristics, namely charge state and number of ionizable protons. The ions with the appropriate characteristics display diagnostic properties for all the chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate chains (degree of polymerization of 4-10) studied.

Glycosaminoglycanomics of cultured cells using a rapid and sensitive LC-MS/MS approach.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), a family of polysaccharides widely distributed in eukaryotic cells, are responsible for a wide array of biological functions. Quantitative disaccharide compositional analysis is one of the primary ways to characterize the GAG structure. This structural analysis is typically time-consuming (1-2 weeks) and labor intensive, requiring GAG recovery and multistep purification, prior to the enzymatic/chemical digestion of GAGs, and finally their analysis. Moreover, 10(5)-10(7) cells are usually required for compositional analysis. We report a sensitive, rapid, and quantitative analysis of GAGs present in a small number of cells. Commonly studied cell lines were selected based on phenotypic properties related to the biological functions of GAGs. These cells were lysed using a commercial surfactant reagent, sonicated, and digested with polysaccharide lyases. The resulting disaccharides were recovered by centrifugal filtration, labeled with 2-aminoacridone, and analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS). Using a highly sensitive MS method, multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), the limit of detection for each disaccharide was reduced to 0.5-1.0 pg, as compared with 1.0-5.0 ng obtained using standard LC-MS analysis. Sample preparation time was reduced to 1-2 days, and the cell number required was reduced to 5000 cells for complete GAG characterization to as few as 500 cells for the characterization of the major GAG disaccharide components. Our survey of the glycosaminoglycanomes of the 20 selected cell lines reveals major differences in their GAG amounts and compositions. Structure-function relationships are explored using these data, suggesting the utility of this method in cellular glycobiology.

Effect of holder pasteurisation on human milk glycosaminoglycans.

The benefits of human milk for preterm infants are mainly the result of its nutritional characteristics and the presence of biologically active compounds. Among these compounds, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) play an emerging leading role. When mother's milk is unavailable or in short supply, pasteurised donor milk represents an important nutritional alternative. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Holder pasteurisation on the concentration of different GAGs in preterm human milk. Milk samples collected from 9 mothers having delivered preterm were divided into 2 parts. One part of each sample was immediately frozen (-80°C), whereas the other part was pasteurised with the Holder method before being frozen at -80°C. Specific analytical procedures were applied to evaluate the amount, composition, and structure of main human milk GAGs. No significative differences were measured between not-treated and pasteurised samples for total GAGs content, relative percentages of chondroitin sulfate and heparan sulfate, and main parameters related to galactosaminoglycans structure, even if a slight decrease of total GAGs content of ∼18% was observed in treated samples. Our results indicate that the Holder pasteurisation does not significatively affect the concentration of the main human milk GAGs.

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Objectives Pre-eclampsia (PE) is a serious pregnancy complication which affects 3–5% of the pregnant population. To date there is no ‘cure’ for PE. However, the placenta seems to play an important role in the pathogenesis of this disease. Human placenta is an abundant source of proteoglycans to which glycosaminoglycan (GAG) side chains are attached. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans (HSPGs) have been implicated in many biological processes including, anticoagulation, angiogenesis and inflammation. However, their role in human placentae is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the mRNA expression and protein abundance of HSPGs as well as the structure and relative abundance of GAGs in PE-affected placentae compared to gestation-matched controls. Methods The mRNA expression of HSPGs was determined using real-time PCR. Proteoglycans (PGs) were isolated from placental tissue by anion-exchange chromatography. PG enriched samples were investigated using ELISA with antibodies against the protein core of a range of PGs, as well as GAG chains, and Heparan Sulphate (HS) linkage regions following 0.01 U/mL heparinase III digestion. Results The mRNA expression of HSPGS, syndecan 1 & 2, glypican 1 & 3 and perlecan was significantly reduced in PE-affected placentae compared to controls ( p n = 40 each, Mann–Whitney U test). Syndecans1-4, glypicans1 & 3, biglycan, decorin and perlecan were identified in placental tissues by ELISA following anion exchange chromatography. HS abundance was further investigated using ELISA following digestion with heparinase III to reveal the HS linkage region common to all HS and heparin chains. In PE-affected placentae there was significantly less HS linkage regions compared to controls (1.53 ± 0.0.19 vs 1.03 ± 0.11, n = 20 each, p = 0.0391, Mann–Whitney U test). This correlated with the reduction in HSPG mRNA expression. Conclusions It is plausible that the reduction in PG expression and HS abundance may contribute to the pathogenesis of PE by altering thrombin management or angiogenic and inflammatory processes within the placenta. Disclosures T. Gunatillake: None. A. Chui: None. M. Lord: None. J. Whitelock: None. P. Murthi: None. V. Ignatovic: None. P. Monagle: None. S. Brennecke: None. J. Said: None.

Macrophage polarization alters the expression and sulfation pattern of glycosaminoglycans.

Macrophages are major cells of inflammatory process and take part in a large number of physiological and pathological processes. According to tissue environment, they can polarize into pro-inflammatory (M1) or alternative (M2) cells. Although many evidences have hinted to a potential role of cell-surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in the functions of macrophages, the effect of M1 or M2 polarization on the biosynthesis of these polysaccharides has not been investigated so far. GAGs are composed of repeat sulfated disaccharide units. Heparan (HS) and chondroitin/dermatan sulfates (CS/DS) are the major GAGs expressed at the cell membrane. They are involved in numerous biological processes, which rely on their ability to selectively interact with a large panel of proteins. More than 20 genes encoding sulfotransferases have been implicated in HS and CS/DS biosynthesis, and the functional repertoire of HS and CS/DS has been related to the expression of these isoenzymes. In this study, we analyzed the expression of sulfotransferases as a response to macrophage polarization. We found that M1 and M2 activation drastically modified the profiles of expression of numerous HS and CS/DS sulfotransferases. This was accompanied by the expression of GAGs with distinct structural features. We then demonstrated that GAGs of M2 macrophages were efficient to present fibroblast growth factor-2 in an assay of tumor cell proliferation, thus indicating that changes in GAG structure may contribute to the functions of polarized macrophages. Altogether, our findings suggest a regulatory mechanism in which fine modifications in GAG biosynthesis may participate to the plasticity of macrophage functions.

Novel branch patterns and anticoagulant activity of glycosaminoglycan from sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

A novel glucosidic pattern of fucose branches was found in the glycosaminoglycan from the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus in China. The methylation of desulfated/carboxyl-reduced polysaccharides and analysis of unsaturated disaccharides generated from the enzymolysis of the defucosed polysaccharides demonstrated that the branch is formed by one fucopyranosyl residue, 46.5% of which is linked through the O-3 position of β-d-glucuronic acid, while 8.7% and 43.9% are linked through the O-6 and O-4 positions of the N-acetylgalactosamine moiety. The β-d-glucuronic acid, N-acetyl-β-d-galactosamine, α-l-fucose and sulfate ester with the molecular ratio of 0.97:1.00:1.13:3.85 composed the backbone →4)GlcUAβ(1→3)GalNAcβ(1→ and sulfated fucose branches. The sulfation patterns of fucose branches and the linkage pattern of the backbone structure were determined by 1/2 dimension NMR. The most abundant branch species were 2,4-di-O-sulfated and 3,4-di-O-sulfated fucose, but 4-mono-O-sulfated residue was also present. The structure of presently obtained glycosaminoglycan is different from that previously obtained from Stichopus japonicus (Kariya et al., Carbohyd. Res. 297 (1997) 273–279), which suggests that the structures of glycosaminoglycans from the same species of different regions somehow differ. The anticoagulant assay indicated that the polysaccharide possessed a high anticoagulant activity and the sulfated fucose branches were essential to the activity.

Human blood glycosaminoglycans: isolation and analysis.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are linear polysaccharides having disaccharide building blocks consisting of an amino sugar (N-acetylglucosamine, or N-acetylgalactosamine) and a uronic acid (glucuronic acid or iduronic acid) or galactose. Glycosaminoglycans have sulfated residues at various positions except for hyaluronan, and those sulfated residues regulate the biological functions of a wide variety of proteins, primarily through high-affinity interactions mediated by specific patterns/densities of sulfation and sugar sequences. Alteration of GAG structure is associated with a number of disease conditions and therefore the analyses of GAG structures and their sulfation patterns are important for the development of disease biomarkers and for treatment options. Extensive structural and quantitative analyses of GAGs from human blood are largely unexplored which may be due to the exhaustive isolation process because of the presence of too much interfering proteins and lipids such as serum albumin. Therefore we established a new GAG isolation method using the least amount (~200 μl) of human blood, consisting of a combination of proteolytic digestion and selective ethanol precipitation of GAGs, digestion of GAGs recovered on the filter cup by direct addition of GAG lyase reaction solution, and subsequent high-pressure liquid chromatography of unsaturated disaccharide products that enable to analyze GAG structures and contents. This isolation method offers an 80 % recovery of GAGs and can be applied to analyze a minute GAG content (≥1 nmol) from the least amount of biological fluids. Hence the method could be useful for the development of disease biomarkers.