Strong Enforcement Mechanisms Research Articles

Changing European Minority Rights Standards

Abstract The Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, the only comprehensive international minority rights treaty, was adopted in 1995 to counter ethnocentric exclusionary tendencies characteristic of newly emerging democracies in East-Central Europe. It has been evaluated as largely successful in developing progressive standards on minority rights, while judged less efficient in implementing them across member states. This article shows on the example of Slovakia that this traditional narrative conceals another important one: while the Framework Convention’s monitoring body, the Advisory Committee, maintains formally progressive positions, in substance it is becoming more accommodating of exclusionary practices. By comparing the Advisory Committee’s standards expressed in its periodic opinions on Slovakia to developments on the ground, the article demonstrates that the international standards are in fact deteriorating. The Advisory Committee’s recent opinions are much more favourable to the Slovak government’s policies on minority rights. Yet, a detailed analysis shows that those policies have not become more minority-friendly in practice. In fact, in several ways they have regressed. The current acceptance of practices it criticized in the past is an important shift in the Advisory Committee’s position. Yet this shift is not reflected in its formal standards, which remain progressive. The analysis shows that the Advisory Committee’s lack of transparency in its monitoring procedures leads to a misrepresentation of the situation of minority rights, which provides cover for anti-minority practices. This makes it difficult for outside observers to evaluate the true state of minority rights and the effectiveness of international standards. In closing, the article engages with the normative assumptions behind the Advisory Committee’s approach. The Framework Convention does not have a strong enforcement mechanism, therefore cooperation with governments is essential to ensure compliance. However, by accommodating exclusionary practices, the Committee also legitimizes them. While valid arguments can be raised both for and against this approach, it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of this trade-off because of its clandestine nature. More transparent monitoring would give legitimacy to an objective international standard, which the current approach risks undermining.

Analysing the Impact of Minimum Wage Laws on Low-Income Workers in Selected Government Ministries, Agencies, Departments and Parastatals in Benue State

This study analyzed the Impact of Minimum Wage Laws on Low-Income Workers in Selected Government Ministries, Agencies, Departments, and Parastatals in Benue State. It specifically examined the impact of the National Minimum Wage Act on Minority Workers as well as the impact of the Labour Act on Rural Workers in selected government MDAs in Benue State. The target population is 2,803 and a sample size of 338 was derived from Krejcie and Morgan method. The hypotheses were tested with simple linear regression analysis on Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) at a 5 percent significant level. Hypothesis one revealed a statistically significant negative impact of the National Minimum Wage Act on minority workers in selected government MDAs in Benue State. Hypothesis two showed that there is a strong negative impact of the Labour Act on Rural Workers in selected government MDAs in Benue State. The study concluded that there is a statistically significant negative impact of impact of minimum wage laws on low-income workers in selected government ministries, agencies, departments and parastatals in Benue State. It was recommended that policymakers need to review and adjust the National Minimum Wage Act to ensure fair compensation for minority workers in government MDAs by conducting wage audits and aligning wages with the local cost of living. Also, the government needs to revise the labour to address the unique challenges of rural workers in government MDAs by implementing region-specific policies and stronger enforcement mechanisms.

Carbon Trading and Environmental Justice: A Juridical Examination of Fairness in Indonesia's Emissions Reduction Initiative

This paper provides a normative juridical analysis of Indonesia's carbon trading regulations, with a focus on environmental justice and fairness. It examines the legal framework established by Presidential Regulation No. 98 of 2021, which governs carbon pricing mechanisms, including carbon taxes and carbon credit trading. The analysis highlights key gaps in the regulation, particularly in terms of equitable benefit distribution and inclusion of vulnerable communities in decision-making processes. While Indonesia's carbon trading system aligns with global trends and its international obligations, significant improvements are needed to ensure that marginalized groups are not further disadvantaged. Recommendations include the redistribution of carbon trading revenues, enhanced public participation, stronger enforcement mechanisms, and alignment with international best practices.

EFFECTS OF DISAGGREGATED TAX REVENUES ON ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA (1995-2023): ARDL BOUND TEST APPROACH

<p>Tax revenue has been a great tool of fiscal policy harnessed toward the economic development of a nation. Its different components have collective effects on the economic growth of a nation. This study examined the effects of disaggregated tax revenue on Nigeria's economic growth from 1995 to 2023. The data was sourced from the Central Bank of Nigeria and the Federal Inland Revenue Service databases. This study examined the effects of disaggregated tax revenue on Nigeria's economic growth from 1995 to 2023. The data was sourced from the Central Bank of Nigeria and the Federal Inland Revenue Service databases. Employing multiple regression analysis within an Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model, the study assessed the impact of Value Added Tax (VAT), Companies Income Tax (CIT), Petroleum Profit Tax (PPT) and Personal Income Tax (PIT) on economic growth. The diagnostic tests confirmed the model's validity, with unit root tests showing that all variables, except PIT, achieved stationarity after differencing. The findings revealed that each tax revenue component positively influences economic growth. Based on these results, the study recommends enhancing the legal and regulatory frameworks for businesses, including regular evaluations and updates of tax laws and stronger enforcement mechanisms. It also underscores the need to strengthen anti-corruption efforts, promote property rights, uphold the rule of law, and prioritise good governance to foster public confidence and ensure the effective use of tax revenues for economic development.</p><p><strong>JEL: </strong>C32, H20, H24, H25</p><p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0785/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Challenges and strategies for implementing the Ramsar Convention. Balancing Economic Development and Wetland Conservation

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, particularly focusing on waterfowl habitats, signifies a pivotal shift in global attitudes towards wetland conservation. Historically viewed as hindrances to development, wetlands have suffered from drainage and reclamation efforts, resulting in significant biodiversity loss. However, a growing recognition of their ecological significance has spurred international action. The Convention, established in 1971, serves as a landmark agreement to safeguard wetland ecosystems. It mandates member states to designate and conserve wetlands within their territories, emphasizing the importance of international cooperation due to the transboundary nature of wetland ecosystems. The Convention’s objectives encompass sustainable development goals, including water quality, biodiversity, and climate change mitigation. Implementation relies on national policies and collaboration among stakeholders. Furthermore, the Convention aligns with other environmental agreements, fostering synergies to enhance wetland protection globally. Despite these positive developments, there are significant challenges in ensuring the effective implementation of the Convention, particularly when economic interests conflict with environmental conservation. As highlighted in the case of the Bystroe Canal project in the Danube Delta, balancing development with wetland protection remains a critical issue. This article addresses the question of whether the Ramsar Convention can effectively apply its provisions in such cases, arguing that while it provides a strong framework, its effectiveness is often undermined by competing economic priorities. Without stronger enforcement mechanisms and increased international cooperation, the objectives of the Convention risk being compromised.

Advancing food safety standards through technology integration and policy development

Food safety is a critical global concern, directly impacting public health, economic stability, and international trade. With the complexity of modern food supply chains and the rising incidence of foodborne illnesses, traditional food safety measures are often insufficient to address the growing risks. This review explores how integrating advanced technologies and developing robust policies can significantly enhance food safety standards. Technological innovations, including the Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI), and automation, offer promising solutions for real-time monitoring, traceability, and predictive analytics in food production and distribution. IoT and sensors enable constant monitoring of environmental conditions like temperature and humidity, while blockchain ensures transparency and traceability across supply chains. AI and machine learning are transforming food safety by predicting contamination risks and optimizing inspection processes, while robotics and automation reduce human error in food processing plants. Alongside technological advancements, policy development plays a crucial role in reinforcing food safety standards. Global harmonization of food safety regulations, stronger enforcement mechanisms, and public-private partnerships are essential for ensuring widespread compliance. Incorporating technology into regulatory frameworks is key to addressing new challenges and maintaining food safety across borders. Governments must also prioritize consumer education and awareness through policies that leverage technology platforms to promote food safety knowledge. Case studies demonstrate the successful application of these technologies in sectors like dairy and meat processing, showcasing the potential for broader industry adoption. However, challenges such as high implementation costs, regulatory lag, and data security concerns remain. This review argues that a synergistic approach combining technological integration with forward-thinking policy development is essential for advancing global food safety standards and safeguarding public health in the future.

Sugar‐Sweetened Beverages Taxation Plan in Indonesia: Call for Political Commitment

ABSTRACTIndonesia is grappling with a rise in obesity and diabetes, partially driven by a high consumption of sugar‐sweetened beverages. The prevalence of obesity among adults more than doubled from 2007 to 2018, and diabetes rates have also increased. In response, the Indonesian government has proposed an excise tax on sugar‐sweetened beverages to reduce consumption. However, the implementation of this policy has repeatedly been delayed, with the latest postponement to 2024. Sugar‐sweetened beverages contribute significantly to chronic diseases, increasing the healthcare burden and reducing economic productivity. Taxation, a widely used public health strategy in the form of fiscal measures, can decrease consumption by raising prices, raising public awareness, encouraging product reformulation, and generating revenue. Despite its potential benefits, the proposed tax in Indonesia faces substantial political and commercial challenges. The president‐elect Prabowo Subanto has not explicitly supported the tax in his political manifesto, raising concerns about further delays due to industry lobbying. Successful implementation of the tax requires robust political will, public and civil society pressure, and effective cross‐sector cooperation. The government must ensure clear policy goals, equal application to domestic and foreign products, and supportive measures such as providing free drinking water alternatives. Transparent stakeholder consultations can build broad‐based support, whereas effective monitoring and evaluation frameworks are essential for compliance. To gain public support, allocating tax revenues to public health and social programs is crucial. Although initial resistance is expected, strong enforcement mechanisms can ensure adherence. With determined political commitment and public advocacy, the sugar‐sweetened beverage tax can significantly reduce obesity and diabetes rates, improving public health outcomes and economic productivity in Indonesia. This commentary provides an overview of the proposed tax, explores its challenges, and offers recommendations for successful implementation.

The Ecosystem Approach to Guaranteeing the Constitutional Human Right to a Safe Environment

The article aims to analyse the ecosystem approach, which should ensure the constitutional human right to a safe environment. The research methodology was based on the use of econometric, comparison, and graphical methods. Analysing the legal instruments, the study identified ways of harmonising the ecosystem approach with the existing legal framework and policy to improve environmental protection. The need for joint efforts between the state, industry, and local communities to find common positions and the importance of strong institutional capacity, public administration, and law enforcement mechanisms was demonstrated based on data from 37 European countries and Ukraine. It is emphasised that it is possible to achieve a balanced prospect between economic development and environmental protection. The academic novelty of this research is an interdisciplinary approach, a new application of the ecosystem approach to human rights, a detailed analysis of challenges and solutions, and global and local prospects. Prospects for further research are the expansion of the analysis database to the level of world regions to obtain generalised results regarding the provision of the constitutional human right to a safe environment.

Challenges of the Right to Fame and the Consequences of Its Violation in the Iranian Legal System

The right to fame, though increasingly relevant in today’s digital age, remains underdeveloped within Iran’s legal framework. This article explores the challenges and consequences of violating the right to fame in Iran, where legal protections are primarily derived from defamation and privacy laws, lacking explicit recognition of fame as a protectable legal right. By employing a descriptive analysis method, the article examines the existing legal provisions, key cases, and the interaction between fame, media law, and freedom of expression in Iran. A comparative analysis with legal systems in the United States and the European Union reveals significant gaps in Iran’s approach, particularly in addressing the economic and commercial exploitation of public personas. The study identifies legal loopholes, inconsistent enforcement, and the complexities introduced by the digital age as key challenges. Recommendations for reform include the formal recognition of fame as a distinct legal right, the introduction of specific legislation to regulate the commercial use of fame, and stronger enforcement mechanisms. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for comprehensive legal reforms to protect individuals from unauthorized exploitation of their fame, aligning Iran’s legal system with international standards in an increasingly digital world.

The role of fundamental rights in the environmental case law of the CJEU

AbstractThere has been a turn to fundamental rights in environmental and climate cases before national and international courts in recent years. We know very little whether there has been such a turn in relation to European Union (EU) law before the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). The CJEU occupies an increasingly relevant position in this nexus between environmental law and human rights because of strong and effective EU enforcement mechanisms, the abundance of specific EU secondary environmental law, the growing role of fundamental rights since 2009 and the self-standing provision on the environment in Article 37 of the Charter. An analysis of the case law, nonetheless, shows that Charter rights that can be used as ‘swords’ in the interest of environmental protection have so far played only a limited role. After explaining the absence of a rights turn, we argue that such a turn is warranted before the CJEU as well, also from a legal perspective. This article examines two potential avenues. The CJEU can derive positive obligations from relevant Charter provisions, including Articles 2 (right to life) and 7 (right to respect for private life and the home) of the Charter, or it can rely more extensively on Article 37 as a tool for interpreting primary and secondary EU law in an environmentally friendly way.

The Idealization of Infant Formula: A Longitudinal Analysis of Labels in Uruguay.

Labels are a key element of the marketing strategies of infant formula companies, and often include text or images that idealize their use, undermining efforts to promote breastfeeding. To evaluate the prevalence of marketing cues that idealize infant formula on labels of products commercialized in Uruguay and to assess changes after a periodic monitoring of compliance with the International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes (IC). This study is a descriptive, observational, and longitudinal assessment of the information included on infant formula labels. The first data collection was in 2019, as part of a periodic assessment to monitor the marketing of human-milk substitutes. In 2021, the same products were purchased to evaluate changes in their labels. Thirty-eight products were identified in 2019, of which 33 were still available in 2021. All information available on the labels was analyzed through content analysis. Most products included at least one textual or visual marketing cue idealizing infant formula in both 2019 (n = 30, 91%) and 2021 (n = 29, 88%). This represents a violation of both the IC and national regulations. References to nutritional composition were the most frequent marketing cue, followed by references to child growth and development. No relevant changes were observed after the periodic assessment conducted by the Uruguayan government. Monitoring compliance with the IC per se cannot be expected to trigger changes in the marketing strategies of infant formula companies. More explicit regulations and strong enforcement mechanisms are needed to end the inappropriate marketing practices on infant formula labels.

Challenges of Protecting Music Intellectual Property in the Digital New Age in Nigeria

This article examines the challenges the Music Industry faces in the area of protection of its intellectual property. The protection of a country’s intellectual property should be the priority of all responsible governments. In Nigeria, the Copyright Act 2004 (Cap C28 Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (LFN) used to be the principal legislation for the protection of innovative works. However, on March 17, 2023, the Nigerian President, Major General Muhammadu Buhari (retd.) signed the Copyright Bill into law. The House of Assembly passed the Bill for an Act to Repeal the Copyright Act 2004 and enact a new Copyright Act in July 2022. The purpose of this paper is to identify the ways the new Act can better protect the rights of musicians and ensure just rewards and recognition for their intellectual efforts. The paper found out that the new Act intends to, among others, expand the rights of authors, raise the sanctions of criminal infringements and address the challenges posed by digital and online use of copyright works. The paper recommends, among others, the creation of strong enforcement mechanisms so that the new Copyright Act 2023 can achieve the purpose for which it was enacted which are to guard intellectual creations against all forms of infringements and to boost the nation’s creative economy in order to make it more globally competitive in the digital new age

Human rights in a sea of market-based approaches: Evaluation of market-based tools integrating social responsibility in the Sustainable Seafood Movement

Social responsibility in the Sustainable Seafood Movement has accelerated in the past several years, as human rights and labor issues are increasingly being integrated into market-based approaches such as certifications, fishery improvement projects (FIPs), and buyer sourcing commitments. There is skepticism around the ability to adequately address human rights within the context of market-based approaches originally designed for environmental sustainability. Experts have raised concerns about the voluntary nature, reliance on social audits, poor enforcement mechanisms, and limited worker representation of these interventions. Using desk-based research and key informant interviews, this study presents a critical evaluation of the market-based interventions integrating elements of human and labor rights. The overarching purpose of this study is to characterize how various initiatives in the Sustainable Seafood Movement are embedding human rights and social issues, in addition to challenges in doing so, and specific areas for improvement. Results suggest that while certifications can be a useful intervention in establishing a minimum level of compliance for the sector, they require improved accountability systems and continuous, internal monitoring led by workers. The FIP model, requiring continuous reporting of progress over time, could potentially be an alternative to the certification model contingent on the adoption of strong enforcement mechanisms. Finally, buyer sourcing commitments have the potential to hold businesses accountable, but voluntary commitments often lack tangible action, like embedding comprehensive processes of human rights due diligence, to protect fishers and workers. It is critical to address the current limitations of voluntary, market-based approaches and move towards mandatory human rights due diligence, better practices for worker engagement, and stricter mechanisms to ensure accountability.

Community enforcement and tenure security: A fuzzy-set qualitative Comparative analysis of twelve community forest management initiatives in the Peruvian Amazon

The interest of policymakers in community management of tropical forests is ever growing. Yet, a large research body shows varied levels of success of community conservation initiatives. While policymakers often prioritize legal forest ownership, mostly land titles, consensus exists that success rather depends on a broader set of local institutional arrangements and their fit with the forest context. In this paper, we contribute to building theory on these institutional arrangements and their interaction. We apply a fuzzy set Qualitative Comparative Analysis to case study data on 12 voluntary community conservation initiatives in northern Peru to explore the relationship between local enforcement, legal and alternative property rights, and conservation effectiveness. As recommended for QCA our case selection was intentional and the cases exhibit diverse conservation successes, geographic characteristics, legal and customary property rights, and enforcement mechanisms. We conclude that strong community enforcement mechanisms are indispensable for effective conservation in voluntary initiatives. Furthermore, we find for cases with strong enforcement mechanisms, that some government back-up, i.e., local government support for enforcement and/or legal rights to conserve the forest, significantly increases conservation effectiveness. Strong conservation enforcement tends to be present in communities with strong forest rules, leaders, and pre-existing community institutions. Our findings suggest the importance of paying close attention to community characteristics during project design and refraining from one-size-fits-all-solutions, such as focusing mainly on the presence of legal ownership rights over the forest. Instead, more focus needs to be placed on understanding existing community institutions and supporting communities to strengthen and adapt these for conservation enforcement, rather than imposing new arrangements. Finally, policymakers can help community enforcement institutions become even more effective, by providing them with legal rights to conserve the forest and by strengthening their relationship with local governments so that they receive support in situations they struggle to handle alone.

Towards an Ecosystem Approach to Management in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: REMPs for Deep Seabed Mining and the Proposed BBNJ Instrument

The ocean plays a key role in sustaining life on our planet and is inextricably linked to biodiversity, climate, human well-being, and health. However, the governance of the ocean is primarily pursued through sectoral-based legal and institutional frameworks that falls short in ensuring the long-term protection of the marine environment and the sustainability of marine resources. This is especially concerning in areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (ABNJ) where human activities continue to expand. The existence of two distinct regimes in ABNJ, namely the High Seas (applicable to the water column, which is a global common) and the Area (applicable to the international seabed and its mineral resources, which are the common heritage of mankind), that have been largely regulated separately, impede the development and implementation of integrated marine environmental governance and biodiversity conservation in ABNJ. On the one hand, the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which is mandated to administer the mineral resources of the Area, is currently discussing a set of regulations to enable future exploitation activities. On the other hand, multilateral negotiations are taking place for the development of an internationally legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (referred to as the proposed ‘BBNJ’ Instrument). Both processes offer a unique opportunity to foster an ecosystem approach to management (EAM) in ABNJ. In this article, we elaborate on options for stronger governance integration and the development of a coherent and collaborative interplay between these two processes. To this end, we explore the potential of Regional Environmental Management Plans (REMPs) established by the ISA as a case study to contribute to global biodiversity conservation, and the opportunity for the proposed BBNJ Instrument to promote overarching coherence to biodiversity conservation in ABNJ, premised on EAM. We conclude that the proposed BBNJ Instrument could have a pivotal role to streamline multilateral action for the conservation of biodiversity in ABNJ by adopting an ambitious, overarching environmental vision and strategic goals, accompanied by strong implementation and enforcement mechanisms.

Collective Damages for GDPR Breaches: A Feasible solution for the GDPR Enforcement Deficit?

The GDPR should have strong and effective enforcement mechanisms. However, in practice, these mechanisms are lacking, as Data Protection Authorities (DPAs) are underfunded and undermanned. Collective claims could be a solution. By pooling resources, individually insignificant damages (scattered damages) can be claimed in an economically sensible way. To facilitate collective claims, in December 2020 the European Union (EU) adopted a new directive containing a union-wide framework for collective claims. This paper explores whether collective claims are a feasible enforcement mechanism for data protection violations given the concept of damages under article 82 GDPR. So, it will be explained what types of damages can be claimed collectively. The current concept of damages under article 82 GDPR is analysed at the EU level, taking into account the principle of autonomy, case law, and literature. This will show the boundaries within which Member States must operate when awarding damages under the GDPR. The paper explores the Dutch jurisdiction, to illustrate the interchange between EU law and Member state law. The Dutch jurisdiction is of special interest here, first, because Dutch courts have recently been applying the GDPR to award damages of up to € 2,500 per case. Second, because the Dutch framework for collective damages was renewed in 2020, which contains many similarities with the Collective Claim Directive. Currently, several collective GDPR claims have been filed in the Netherlands under the new framework, with a collective worth of several billion euros. A 'perfect storm' is forming due to the combination of stronger collective claims frameworks and a tentative trend to award non-pecuniary GDPR damages on an individual level. GDPR non-compliance can thus lead to multi-billion claims that scale with the number of victims. Such claims can dwarf even the heftiest GDPR fines DPAs can impose. Collective GDPR claims have the potential to become a bright scenario for data subjects and daring legal entrepreneurs, and to result in a daunting future for data controllers and processors, who face scalable liability in a world of scalable business models. However, all hinges on the concept of damages. Keywords: GDPR | Enforcement Deficit | The Netherlands | Collective Claim Directive

Understanding dynamics of private tuberculosis pharmacy market: a qualitative inquiry from a South Indian district

ObjectivesIn India, retail private pharmacists (RPPs) are often patients’ first point of contact for diseases, including tuberculosis (TB). We assessed the factors influencing RPPs’ referral of patients with chest symptoms...

Labor clauses in trade agreements: Hidden protectionism?

We explore the impact of the introduction and design of labor clauses (LCs) in preferential trade agreements (PTAs) on bilateral trade flows over the period 1990–2014. While it is not a priori clear if the inclusion of LCs in PTAs will decrease or increase bilateral trade, we expect the direction of trade to matter, that is, we expect to observe the (negative or positive) impact of LCs in the South-North trade configuration. We also expect, in that configuration, stronger LCs to yield stronger (negative or positive) effects on bilateral trade flows. Using a novel dataset on the content of labor provisions in PTAs, we find in line with our first expectation that while the introduction of LCs has on average no impact on bilateral trade flows, it increases exports of low and middle-income countries with weaker labor standards in North–South trade agreements. Consistent with our second expectation, this positive impact is mostly driven by LCs with institutionalized cooperation provisions. In contrast, LCs with strong enforcement mechanisms do not have a statistically significant impact on exports of developing countries in North–South PTAs. The results are inconsistent with the ideas that LCs are set for protectionist reasons or have protectionist effects, casting doubt on the logic for the reluctance of many developing countries to include LCs in their trade agreements.

Unfree Labour and the Capitalist State: An Open Marxist Analysis of the 2015 Modern Slavery Act

The Modern Slavery Act was passed in 2015, ostensibly to tackle exploitation. Despite being promoted for its ‘world-leading’ qualities, the legislation’s weaknesses have, even at this relatively early stage of its implementation, been well documented. This is unsurprising; legislators were aware they were passing a bill that could have had stronger enforcement mechanisms, opting instead for a weaker alternative. This article takes these shortcomings as its starting point to ask who, or what, benefits from the Modern Slavery Act, if not those it is purportedly aimed to help. The response is that the main beneficiaries of the Modern Slavery Act are capitalism, and the Conservative government that created the bill. The Modern Slavery Act operates through the modern slavery discourse that positions unfree forms of labour as aberrations that operate outside of capitalism, and once unfree labour practices have been framed in this way, the capitalist free market is identified not as a causal factor but as the solution. In addition, the Conservative government used the Modern Slavery Act domestically as a counterpoint to its hostile environment policy to soften their image for part of the electorate. When viewed as an artefact of capitalist thinking and state management, it becomes clear that the Modern Slavery Act makes a not insignificant contribution to the legitimacy of both capitalism and the government by conferring upon them a degree of legitimacy as the routes through which the unfree will be liberated.

The effect of central government grants on local educational policy

The use of intergovernmental grants in educational policies may give rise to a conflict between gains attributable to local flexibility and the central government’s intention to narrow gaps in school spending and resource use across local jurisdictions. This paper estimates the impact on school resources of a Norwegian central government grant intended to decrease the student-teacher ratio in primary school (grades 1–4). The grant was given to the 100 municipalities with the highest student-teacher ratios out of more than 400 municipalities. Using a difference-in-differences approach, our results show that Norwegian municipalities did not increase teacher density in primary schools, despite receiving extra grants for this purpose. Though we cannot rule out that there was some take-up of our grant, we can exclude full take up. Our results suggest that strong enforcement mechanisms may be necessary for earmarked grants to affect local allocation of resources as intended by central governments, although this might come at the cost of reducing local flexibility.