Strong Cross-sectional Correlation Research Articles

A Random Matrix Model of Regional Economic Disparity Based on Spatial Panel Data Analysis

This paper adopts a random matrix approach to model spatial panel data and applies the model to the analysis of regional economic disparity. A panel data clustering method based on variable influence and response structural relationship clustering is proposed to define the structural relationship distance, cluster the panel data from the structural relationship so that the data within the class have the same structural relationship, and give the specific algorithm for determining the classification number in the clustering process based on the structural relationship. The methods of clustering panel data with the presence of linear, nonlinear, and functional relationships are considered separately to aggregate and classify the panel data in terms of the structural relationships of parameters. Using the classification modeling approach proposed in this paper, the empirical analysis is better than the estimation effect in the case of no classification; the empirical test data also show that there is a strong cross-sectional correlation between the economic and financial development data of different regions, and the estimation effect of the model with the correlation treatment is better than the estimation effect of the model without the correlation treatment. The study finds that there is a significant imbalance between financial and economic development, the phenomenon of financial exclusion is serious, and the dynamic influence relationship between financial and economic development in relatively less developed regions is different from that between financial development and economic development in relatively developed regions. In addition to the influencing factors, we should improve the efficiency of investment utilization, give better play to the geographical advantages, keep the industrial structure rationalized, develop the special economy according to the local conditions, and give full play to the spatial effect as well as improve the economic development.

Growth Faltering and Developmental Delay in HIV-Exposed Uninfected Ugandan Infants: A Prospective Cohort Study.

HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) infants are at increased risk of impaired early linear growth and cognitive development. We examined associations between prenatal and postnatal growth and subsequent neurodevelopment in Ugandan HEU infants, hypothesizing that early insults may explain alterations in both somatic growth and brain development. We prospectively followed a cohort of HEU infants from birth to 18 months of age, and measured length/height, weight, head, and arm circumference longitudinally. The Malawi Development Assessment Tool (MDAT, 12 and 18 months) and the Color Object Association Test (18 months) were used for developmental assessments. Among 170 HEU infants, the prevalence of low-birth weight and failure to thrive was 7.6% and 37%, respectively. HEU infants had MDAT scores that were similar to the reference population. The mean (SD) score on the Color Object Association Test was 5.5 (3.1) compared with 6.9 (5.3) in developmentally normal children. Developmental ability at age 18 months showed strong cross-sectional correlation with weight-for-age (ρ = 0.36, P < 0.0001), length/height-for-age (ρ = 0.41, P < 0.0001), head circumference-for-age (ρ = 0.26, P = 0.0011), and mid-upper arm circumference-for-age (ρ = 0.34, P = 0.0014). There was a statistically significant correlation between birth weight and MDAT z-score at 18 months (ρ = 0.20, P = 0.010). Failure to thrive was associated with lower MDAT z-score [median -0.13 (IQR -0.75 to +0.14) versus +0.14 (IQR -0.44 to +0.63), P = 0.042]. Growth faltering in HEU infants was associated with lower attainment of developmental milestones at age 18 months. Our findings point to a simple screening method for identifying HEU infants at risk for developmental intervention.

Dynamic spatial panel data models with common shocks

This paper studies dynamic spatial panel data models with common shocks to deal with both weak and strong cross-sectional correlations. Weak correlations are captured by a spatial structure and strong correlations are captured by a factor structure. The proposed quasi-maximum likelihood estimator (QMLE) is capable of handling both types of cross sectional dependence. We provide a rigorous analysis for the asymptotic theory of the QMLE, demonstrating its desirable properties. Heteroskedasticity is explicitly allowed. This is important because QML is inconsistent in the presence of heteroskedasticity while homoskedasticity is imposed. We further show that when heteroskedasticity is estimated, the limiting variance of QMLE is not a sandwich form regardless of normality. Monte Carlo simulations show that the QMLE has good finite sample properties.

Variance Asymmetry Managed Portfolios

I propose a forward-looking measure of the asymmetry in the variance of asset returns and introduce a way to estimate it from option prices. This measure is model free and it serves as a close approximation for the asset expected excess return. I provide an empirically supported sufficient condition under which the risk-neutral variance asymmetry ranks stocks based on their physical expected returns. Empirically, I find strong cross-sectional correlation between this measure and future stock returns. Variance asymmetry managed portfolios yield economically large average returns and Sharpe ratios. Crash risk and standard asset pricing factors do not explain this abnormal performance.

Determining the number of factors with potentially strong within-block correlations in error terms

ABSTRACTWe develop methods to estimate the number of factors when error terms have potentially strong correlations in the cross-sectional dimension. The information criteria proposed by Bai and Ng (2002) require the cross-sectional correlations between the error terms to be weak. Violation of this weak correlation assumption may lead to inconsistent estimates of the number of factors. We establish two data-dependent estimators that are consistent whether the error terms are weakly or strongly correlated in the cross-sectional dimension. To handle potentially strong cross-sectional correlations between the error terms, we use a block structure in which the within-block correlation may either be weak or strong, but the between-block correlation is limited. Our estimators allow imperfect knowledge and a moderate misspecification of the block structure. Monte-Carlo simulation results show that our estimators perform similarly to existing methods for cases in which the conventional weak correlation assumption is satisfied. When the error terms have a strong cross-sectional correlation, our estimators outperform the existing methods.

Age related differences in the influences of domain-general and domain-specific variables on mathematical achievement

Event Abstract Back to Event Age related differences in the influences of domain-general and domain-specific variables on mathematical achievement Kerry Lee1* 1 National Institute of Education, Singapore Previous studies showed that success in mathematics is dependent on both domain-general cognitive capabilities and domain-specific competencies. What remains unclear is the extent to which associations vary with age and the extent to which the relative importance of domain-general versus domain-specific factors vary. In this talk, I will focus largely on working memory and updating as representative of domain-general capacities. The extant literature point to three ways in which patterns of relations between working memory, updating, and math performance can be characterised. Studies conducted with younger children, in particular, suggest that working memory predicts mathematical performance more consistently than does prior mathematical performance. Others suggest that the explanatory power of working memory and updating is largely mediated by prior mathematical achievement. A third possibility is a dynamic model, which specifies that the relative importance of WM, updating, and prior mathematical performance vary both with age and the domain of mathematics under consideration. We tested these hypotheses with data from a four-year longitudinal study that involved 673 children from K2, Grades 2, 4 and 6 (5, 7, 9, and 11 year olds, respectively). Each year, children completed a battery of working memory (Listening Recall, Mr. X, and an updating task) and mathematics tasks. For mathematics, we adopted both a wider lens that examined the development of mathematical skills in general and a narrower lens that focused on the development of algebraic skills. The former was measured using a standardised math task (Numerical Operations). The latter was measured using both mathematical relation tasks (Number Sequences, Function Machine, Functions) and algebra word problems. Examination of concurrent relationships indicated that the magnitude of relations between Numerical Operations and working memory was lowest in Kindergarten, peaked at Grade 1, and moderated but remained strong for the older children. Of interest was that from a predictive perspective, working memory predicted performance on Numerical Operations equally well across the ten grades. In contrast, compared to the primary years, performance in the more senior grades was more heavily dependent on performance the year before. Despite strong cross-sectional correlations, working memory and updating did not consistently predict performances on any of the mathematical relational or algebraic tasks. Interestingly, children with smaller working memory and updating capacities in 7th grades tended to do better in 8th grade algebra. The canonical relation (i.e., higher capacity, better performance) was observed again one year later. These findings point to a dynamic relation in which associations between domain-general, domain-specific, and mathematics performance vary depending both on grade and the domain of mathematics under consideration. It was surprising that working memory and updating failed to predict performance in algebra problems in subsequent years. This is discussed in terms of resources required for solving versus learning how to solve algebraic problems. Keywords: working memory capacity, Mathematics, algebra, Longitudinal Studies, mathematical patterns Conference: International Conference - Educational Neuroscience, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 28 Feb - 29 Feb, 2016. Presentation Type: Oral Presentation (invited speakers only) Topic: Educational Neuroscience Citation: Lee K (2016). Age related differences in the influences of domain-general and domain-specific variables on mathematical achievement. Front. Neurosci. Conference Abstract: International Conference - Educational Neuroscience. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnins.2016.92.00009 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 25 Jan 2016; Published Online: 23 Mar 2016. * Correspondence: Dr. Kerry Lee, National Institute of Education, Singapore, Singapore, kerrylee@eduhk.hk Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Kerry Lee Google Kerry Lee Google Scholar Kerry Lee PubMed Kerry Lee Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Developmental changes in working memory, updating, and math achievement.

Children with higher working memory or updating (WMU) capacity perform better in math. What is less clear is whether and how this relation varies with grade. Children (N = 673, kindergarten to Grade 9) participated in a 4-year cross-sequential study. Data from 3 WMU (Listening Recall, Mr. X, and an updating task) and a standardized math task (Numerical Operations) showed strong cross-sectional correlations at each of the 10 grades, but particularly at Grades 1 and 2. Cross-lagged autoregressive analysis showed invariance in the predictive relations between WMU and subsequent math performance, but the importance of domain-specific knowledge increased with grade. Latent growth modeling showed that higher WMU capacity at kindergarten predicted higher math growth rates, averaged across all grades, but WMU growth rate was invariant across grades. Socioeconomic status, but not gender, explained variance in WMU at kindergarten. Implications for WM training are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Losing my religion: The effects of religious scandals on religious participation and charitable giving

We study how the U.S. Catholic clergy abuse scandals affected religious participation, religious beliefs, and pro-social behavior. To estimate the causal effects of the scandals on various outcomes, we conduct an event-study analysis that exploits the fine distribution of the scandals over space and time. First, a scandal causes a significant and long-lasting decline in religious participation in the zip code where it occurs. Second, the decline in religious participation does not generate a statistically significant decline in religious beliefs, pro-social beliefs, and some commonly used measures of pro-social behavior. This evidence is consistent with the view that changes in religious participation during adulthood may have limited or no effect on deep beliefs and values. Third, the scandals cause a long-lasting decline in charitable contributions. Indeed, the decline in charitable giving is an order of magnitude larger than the direct costs of the scandals to the Catholic churches (e.g., lawsuits). If we assume that the scandals affect charitable giving only through the decline in religious participation, our estimates would suggest that the strong cross-sectional correlation between religious participation and charitable giving has the presumed direction of causality.

Determining the Number of Factors with Potentially Strong Cross-Sectional Correlation in Idiosyncratic Shocks

This paper develops methods to estimate the number of factors in dynamic factor models where the idiosyncratic shocks have potentially strong correlation in the cross-sectional dimension. The information criteria proposed by Bai and Ng (2002) require weak cross-sectional correlation in idiosyncratic shocks. Violation of such weak correlation assumption can lead to inconsistent estimates of the number of factors. This paper establishes data dependent estimators that are consistent whether the idiosyncratic shocks have weakly or strongly cross-sectional correlation. Monte Carlo results show that our estimators have similar performance to existing methods when the conventional weak correlation assumption is satisfied and outperform the existing methods when idiosyncratic shocks have strong cross-sectional correlation.

Religious Congregations, Charitable Giving and Welfare: Lessons from an Event Study of the Catholic-Clergy Sexual Abuse Scandals in the United States

We study how the U.S. Catholic clergy abuse scandals affected religious participation, religious beliefs, and pro-social behavior. To estimate the causal effects of the scandals on various outcomes, we conduct an event-study analysis that exploits the fine distribution of the scandals over space and time. First, a scandal causes a significant and long-lasting decline in religious participation in the zip code where it occurs. Second, the decline in religious participation does not generate a statistically significant decline in religious beliefs, pro-social beliefs, and some commonly used measures of pro-social behavior. This evidence is consistent with the view that changes in religious participation during adulthood may have limited or no effect on deep beliefs and values. Third, the scandals cause a long-lasting decline in charitable contributions. Indeed, the decline in charitable giving is an order of magnitude larger than the direct costs of the scandals to the Catholic churches (e.g., lawsuits). If we assume that the scandals affect charitable giving only through the decline in religious participation, our estimates would suggest that the strong cross-sectional correlation between religious participation and charitable giving has the presumed direction of causality.

Measuring Upper Limb Capacity in Patients After Stroke: Reliability and Validity of the Stroke Upper Limb Capacity Scale

Houwink A, Roorda LD, Smits W, Molenaar IW, Geurts AC. Measuring upper limb capacity in patients after stroke: reliability and validity of the Stroke Upper Limb Capacity Scale. Objective To investigate the interrater reliability and construct validity of the Stroke Upper Limb Capacity Scale (SULCS). Design Cohort study. Setting Inpatient department of a rehabilitation center. Participants Patients after stroke (N=21; mean age ± SD, 61.7±7.9y; 57% men), undergoing inpatient rehabilitation. Interventions Not applicable. Main Outcome Measures The SULCS was administered by occupational therapists (OTs) within 6 weeks after stroke (t1), 3 months after t1 by the same OT (t2), and within 1 week after t2 by another OT (t3). Interrater reliability, the repeatability between different raters, was assessed by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) based on the scores at t2 and t3. Construct validity, indicating agreement with hypotheses concerning the construct that is being measured, was assessed with Spearman rank correlation coefficient ( ρ). The SULCS scores were cross-sectionally correlated with those of the Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) and the Rivermead Motor Assessment (RMA) at t1, and longitudinally with the respective change scores between t1 and t2. Results The SULCS (range, 0–10) had a high ICC (.94; 95% confidence interval, .86–.97) and strong cross-sectional correlation with both the ARAT and the RMA ( ρ=.91 and ρ=.85, respectively), while the respective change scores showed a strong correlation with the ARAT ( ρ=.71) and a moderate correlation with the RMA ( ρ=.48). Conclusions The SULCS has good interrater reliability and construct validity.

A prospective latent analyses study of psychiatric comorbidity of DSM‐IV bipolar I and II disorders

To test two hypotheses of psychiatric comorbidity in bipolar disorder (BD): (i) comorbid disorders are independent of BD course, or (ii) comorbid disorders associate with mood. In the Jorvi Bipolar Study (JoBS), 191 secondary-care outpatients and inpatients with DSM-IV bipolar I disorder (BD-I) or bipolar II disorder (BD-II) were evaluated with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Disorders, with psychotic screen, plus symptom scales, at intake and at 6 and 18 months. Three evaluations of comorbidity were available for 144 subjects (65 BD-I, 79 BD-II; 76.6% of 188 living patients). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine correlations between mood symptoms and comorbidity. A latent change model (LCM) was used to examine intraindividual changes across time in depressive and anxiety symptoms. Current mood was modeled in terms of current illness phase, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Young Mania Rating Scale, and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale; comorbidity in terms of categorical DSM-IV anxiety disorder diagnosis, Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) score, and DSM-IV-based scales of substance use and eating disorders. In the SEM, depression and anxiety exhibited strong cross-sectional and autoregressive correlation; high levels of depression were associated with high concurrent anxiety, both persisting over time. Substance use disorders covaried with manic symptoms (r = 0.16-0.20, p < 0.05), and eating disorders with depressive symptoms (r = 0.15-0.32, p < 0.05). In the LCM, longitudinal intraindividual improvements in BDI were associated with similar BAI improvement (r = 0.42, p < 0.001). Depression and anxiety covary strongly cross-sectionally and longitudinally in BD. Substance use disorders are moderately associated with manic symptoms, and eating disorders with depressive mood.

Prospective association between fasting NEFA and type 2 diabetes: impact of post-load glucose

Elevated fasting NEFAs are thought to promote type 2 diabetes. Three prospective studies support this concept, showing increased diabetes risk associated with fasting NEFA. However, these prospective associations may be confounded by strong cross-sectional correlations between fasting NEFA and metabolic predictors of diabetes. To examine this assumption, we used cohort data from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Within the IRAS cohort (n = 902, 145 incident cases), we examined nine metabolic variables for their confounding effect on the fasting NEFA-diabetes association: 2 h glucose; fasting plasma glucose; body mass index; waist circumference; waist-to-hip ratio; weight; insulin sensitivity (S (I)); fasting insulin; and acute insulin response. We compared odds ratios for fasting NEFA (log( e ) transformed and adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity and clinic) before and after inclusion of each metabolic variable into a logistic regression model. Three variables (2 h glucose, BMI and S (I)) cross-sectionally correlated with fasting NEFA (r > or = 0.1, p < 0.05). Unadjusted for metabolic predictors, fasting NEFA levels were positively associated with diabetes risk: OR 1.37 (95% CI 0.87-2.15) per unit on a log scale. All metabolic variables except AIR showed confounding. Inclusion of 2 h glucose reversed the positive association (OR 0.50 [95% CI 0.30-0.82]), whereas other predictors reduced the association to the null. The final model included the variables correlated with baseline fasting NEFA (2 h glucose, BMI and S (I)) and the demographic variables resulting in OR 0.47 (95% CI 0.27-0.81). Our results indicate that 2 h glucose strongly confounds the prospective association between fasting NEFA and diabetes; carefully adjusted fasting NEFA levels are inversely associated with diabetes risk.

Health status and portfolio choice: Causality or heterogeneity?

This paper explores the role of unobserved individual characteristics in the health-assets and health-portfolio correlations. We apply various econometrics models to a unique longitudinal dataset with rich information that allows for the exploitation of four different health indices. Our findings show strong cross-sectional correlations between health and both financial and non-financial assets, but these correlations seem to be mainly driven by heterogeneity as the correlations largely disappear in the fixed-effects model. Adverse health shocks, however, are found to motivate a safer portfolio choice even after individual fixed-effects are controlled for – a result consistent with the prediction made by the background risk theory. Our findings suggest that health shocks shift investment from risky assets toward other financial assets, but keep the total financial assets unchanged.

WHO'S PATENTING IN THE UNIVERSITY? EVIDENCE FROM THE SURVEY OF DOCTORATE RECIPIENTS

We use the Survey of Doctorate Recipients to examine the question of who in US universities is patenting. Because standard methods of estimation are not directly applicable, we use a zero-inflated negative binomial model to estimate the patent equation, using instruments for the number of articles to avoid problems of endogeneity. We also estimate the patent model using the generalized method of moments estimation of count data models with endogenous regressors. We find work context and field to be important predictors of the number of patent applications. We also find patents to be positively and significantly related to the number of publications. This finding is robust to the choice of instruments and method of estimation. The cross-sectional nature of the data preclude an examination of whether a trade-off exists between publishing and patenting, holding individual characteristics constant over time. But the strong cross-sectional correlation that we find does not suggest that commercialization has come at the expense of placing knowledge in the public domain.

ABS30: Validation of the ACQ (Juniper) in children: A pilot study

The Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ-Juniper) is widely used as a clinical endpoint in clinical trials. It has been validated for use in adults, but not in children. To carry out a pilot project look at the acceptability of carrying out the ACQ in children in a primary care setting and the correlation of the ACQ score with other measures of asthma control. 15 children (age range 6–16 yrs and median ICS dose 200 mcg BDP (or equivalent) attending 2 primary care asthma clinics in the United Kingdom were enrolled. Assessments were made at 2 -weekly intervals over 12 weeks. The 6-question ACQ was used together with RCP 3 Questions, FEV1, miniAsthma Quality of Life Questionnaire(mini-AQLQ) Paediatric Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire (PALQ), bronchodilator use and exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) levels. Routine clinical care was allowed to continue. 105 measurements of ACQ were made over the 12 week period. The questionnaire was easy to complete although younger children needed some help with interpretation from their parents. There was a strong cross-sectional correlation with PAQLQ (Spearmann's rank correlation r = 0.85 p < 0.001), moderate correlation with the RCP 3 questions (r = 0.4 p< 0.001) and bronchodilator use (r = 0.4. p < 0.001) and weak or no correlation with eNO (r = 0.20 p < 0.05) and FEV-1% predicted (r = −0.12, ns) There was a strong longitudinal correlation between changes in ACQ and change in PALQ (r= 0.66, p<0.001), moderate correlation between changes in RCP 3 question score (r= 0.48, p < 0.001) and bronchodilator use (r = 0.42, p < 0.01). There was no correlation with changes in eNO (r = 0.15, ns) and FEV-1% predicted (r= 0.02, ns). The 6- question ACQ is easy to use in children age 6–16 with asthma although parental help may be needed for younger children. It shows cross-sectional and longitudinal validity with some other parameters of asthma control. A larger multi-centre validation study in primary care is planned. Conflict of interest and funding No. Funding: Funded by RCGP, United Kingdom.

The 6-Minute Walk Test Does Not Reliably Detect Changes in Functional Capacity of Patients Awaiting Cardiac Transplantation

Peak oxygen consumption (Vo(2)peak) is a strong independent predictor of prognosis in patients with severe chronic heart failure (CHF) and is used to guide optimal timing of transplantation. However, its assessment is relatively expensive and time-consuming and requires sophisticated equipment and highly trained personnel. The purpose of this study was to determine whether changes in 6-minute walk test (6WT) distance, a simple, inexpensive potential alternative measure of functional capacity, can predict changes in Vo(2)peak in patients with severe CHF. Sixteen subjects (ejection fraction 23+/-2%, Vo(2)peak 16.2+/-1.1 ml kg (-1)min(-1)) underwent repeated 6WT and Vo(2)peak assessments that included familiarization and 4 serial measures, 6 weeks apart (baseline and at Weeks 6, 12 and 18). Analysis compared baseline performance with each subsequent testing occasion. At baseline, mean (+/-SE) VO(2)peak was 16.3+/-1.1 ml kg(-1) min(-1) and 6WT distance was 458+/-21 m. 6WT and Vo(2)peak were strongly correlated at all timepoints (average r=0.82; all p<0.05). However, mixed model analysis, assessing the capacity of the changes seen in 6WT to predict changes in Vo(2)peak, showed no statistical significance (F=0.11; p=0.74). The 6WT is commonly used to assess functional capacity in patients with heart failure. This study demonstrates that, despite a strong cross-sectional correlation with Vo(2)peak, changes in the 6WT are not a reliable predictor of changes in Vo(2)peak within patients. Therefore, the 6WT has limited utility as a serial measure to assess changes in the clinical status of patients with severe heart failure.

Utilization of the multiple sclerosis functional composite in follow-up: relationship to disease phenotype, disability and treatment strategies

As multiple sclerosis (MS) has a dynamic process, monitoring of the disability is important in the remission period. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the usefulness of MSFC instead of EDSS in the follow-up period of MS. In addition, evaluation of the effect of immunomodulatory therapy, and the difference among the type of MS in follow-up was purposed. One hundred and eighty-three patients with definite MS were enrolled in the present study. Patients were diagnosed as having relapsing–remitting (RR) MS ( n=149) or secondary progressive (SP) MS ( n=34). Fifty-eight out of 149 RRMS patients who had at least two relapses in the last 2 years have received any of the immunomodulator agents. The Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite (MSFC) and Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) were performed at baseline and after 2 years to assess disability. Patients who were under disease modifying therapy were assessed before the treatment and 2 years after starting the treatment. Cross-sectional correlations between MSFC and EDSS score at baseline and follow-up were studied. Patients were divided into three subgroups: (1) RRMS patients who did not receive disease modifying therapy (DMT)—non-DMT group, (2) RRMS patients who received DMT—DMT group, (3) SPMS patients who did not receive DMT—SPMS group. EDSS and MSFC scores got worsened significantly at the end of the second year. Decreases in either EDSS or MSFC scores were more prominent in SPMS group. The most significant worsening was found in T25WT. The most prominent and significant decrease was in PASAT of SPMS group. Moderately strong cross-sectional correlations were found between MSFC and EDSS scores at baseline and follow-up. The most prominent correlation was between EDSS and T25WT scores with an excellent correlation. We concluded that the MSFC assesses aspects of neurological function not measured by the EDSS, suggesting that it is more sensitive to detect change over time and better able to demonstrate a therapeutic effect. The pattern of correlations among the MSFC, its components, and the EDSS supported the validity of MSFC.

Prospective relations between rejection and depression in young adolescents.

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine the relations between rejection and depression across 3 years in young adolescents who varied with regard to their risk for depression. The sample consisted of 240 adolescents who were assessed in grades 6, 7, and 8. The assessment of rejection was based on adolescent-, mother-, and teacher-report, and depression assessment was based on adolescent- and mother-report and clinician ratings. Structural equation modeling indicated that rejection prospectively predicted depression. The authors did not find that depression prospectively predicted rejection, but such a relation cannot be ruled out because of strong cross-sectional correlations between depression and rejection.

Inflation pressure and European unemployment

While the recent failure of unemployment to fall in many OECD economies is often attributed to labour market rigidities, there is a strong cross–sectional correlation between changes in unemployment since the last recession and changes in inflation over the same period (1993–1997). Furthermore, this linkage is dominated by the influence of initial (i.e. 1993) inflation. This can be interpreted in terms of two effects: countries with higher 1993 inflation had less scope for relaxation of monetary policy, and may have experienced larger increases in expected inflation. These inflation pressure effects in turn are related to the EMU inflation convergence criteria.