Strength Sports Research Articles

Sex segregation in strength sports: Do equal-sized muscles express the same levels of strength between sexes?

Concerns have been raised against the current two-sex binary category in sports competitions. The thesis states that if males and females were separated based on muscle size, it would negate the strength advantage between the sexes. We tested the possible sex differences in various strength outcomes when pair-matched for muscle thickness. A total of 16 different data sets (n=963) were assessed to pair-match females with males who had a muscle thickness value within 2%. We further compared the competition performances of the smallest male weight class within the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF) to different weight classes in females. Overall, 76%-88% of the strength assessments were greater in males than females with pair-matched muscle thickness, regardless of contraction types (i.e., isotonic, isometric, isokinetic). Additionally, males in the lightest weight division in the IPF largely outperformed females in heavier weight divisions. Our results would suggest that segregation based on muscle mass or surrogates of muscle mass (e.g., lean body mass) might not be an appropriate classification to create fair competition within strength sports. This is not to refute the concept of the desegregation of the two-sex binary category but to present data that raises important concerns about the potential sex-based differences in strength performance.

Intelligence-based doping control planning improves testing effectiveness: Perspectives from a national anti-doping organisation.

Anti-doping organisations are mandated to provide a comprehensive anti-doping programme, which aims to detect, deter and prevent doping in sport. Direct detection of prohibited substances and methods by collection of biological samples from athletes makes up about half of the global anti-doping budgets but has in the last decade been under critical scrutiny for its lack of efficiency. To ensure optimum detection and deterrence of testing and prevention efforts, a better understanding of doping practices and comparison of different doping test strategies are needed. This study evaluates 17 years of doping test statistics and Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRVs) from the perspectives of a national anti-doping organisation. A total of 48 709 samples (2865 ± 220 annually) were collected by Anti-Doping Norway in the period 2003-2019, which resulted in total 216 ADRVs (12.7±3.7 annually), providing an average sample-to-ADRV rate of 0.44% when including urine, blood and ABP samples. Most athletes who committed ADRVs were men participating in ball and team or strength sports at a national or recreational level. Few ADRVs were recorded among elite athletes and in most high-risk sports, despite these groups being subjected to the highest number of doping tests. The number of annual ADRVs did not correlate with the corresponding number of collected doping samples. However, systematic use of intelligence in the test planning process was associated with an increase in ADRVs. Anti-doping organisations would benefit from improving their target testing capability and to take an intelligence-led approach in planning doping tests.

INFLUENCE OF SEROLOGICAL MARKERS OF BLOOD GROUPS UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL MEMORY IN HIGH SCHOOLERS AND STUDENTS.

The aim: To investigate the influence of serological markers of blood groups of the AB0 system upon the development of short-term visual memory in high schoolers and students. Materials and methods: The research involved 13-16-year-old high schoolers (boys) (n = 139) who were involved in various sports: group A - speed and strength sports (n = 74); group B - endurance sports (n = 65). The control group consisted of 13-16-year-old high schoolers (n = 106) and 17-20-year-old students (n = 212) who were not engaged in sports. The study of short-term visual memory was conducted using the "Memory for geometric shapes" method. Results: It was found that high schoolers and students with the 0(I) blood group have the best associative coupling with the properties of short-term visual memory. Conclusions: The use of serological markers of blood groups according to the AB0 system is possible in the genetic prediction of the development of visual memory in high schoolers and students. Herewith, the associative coupling is more pronounced in juvenility than in adolescence.

Assessment of readiness for sports activities in cheer sports of student athletes with experience in various sports

Cheer sport is rapidly gaining popularity including in student sports which determines the relevance of research on the problems of its development in student sports. The article is devoted to the study of the readiness of student-athletes engaged in various difficult-coordination sports to continue a sports career in cheer sports. The purpose of the study was to identify the initial level of development of leading physical qualities and special technical skills for cheerleaders in athletes of different specializations to determine readiness for sports improvement in the university student cheer sports team. The study was conducted using the method of control tests using tests to assess the leading physical qualities and special technical skills of cheerleaders. The results of the study showed that the level of readiness for sports improvement in student cheerleading teams of athletes who had sports experience in various sports is due to the specifics of their previous sports activities. At the same time, athletes who have previously engaged in sports with an acrobatic orientation have the skills to perform acrobatic tracks required in competitive activities in cheerleading. A good level of flexibility development in girls contributes to the implementation of complex static elements of competitive activity in cheerleading. A good level of development of strength abilities possessed by young men who have previously engaged in strength sports can serve as the basis for their successful performance of such elements of cheerleading as support and emissions. The significance of the conducted research lies in the establishment of the need to assess the initial level of readiness for sports improvement in the cheer sport of athletes who previously engaged in various sports. The information obtained will allow the coach to individualize the training process, focusing on the development of missing or underdeveloped qualities and skills of each athlete, which will allow him to determine the optimal competitive program of the team for the successful preparation of the team for the competition.

Quantitative ultrasound (QUS) of bone in sport

Background. The quantitative examination of bone tissue is primarily associated with the diagnosis of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is rarely suspected among athletes, usually young, active, and generally healthy. Quantitative research of bone tissue related to the sport has a preventive dimension. Increasing the parameters of bone tissue strength, especially reaching the maximum value of peak bone strength in childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood due to practicing sports can contribute to maintaining bone health throughout life. The study was designed to review and narratively analyze the impact of sports activity on bone mass using quantitative ultrasound bone assessment. Material and methods. Extensive electronic research has been conducted to identify scientific papers using ultrasonic methods to evaluate bones in sports. The study was conducted using the PRISMA method (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses). Searching and downloading articles were done electronically. The narrative strategy of the review was implemented step by step. Results. Five hundred and twenty-nine results were identified. After reading the full texts, there are 12 articles left. Relevant articles were found in the references of selected articles and added to the analysis. Selected articles were selected to be presented in the results, and the rest were used for discussion. Higher bone density and strength are often found in active sporting groups compared to non-athlete peer groups. The influence of physical activity is observed, especially in strength or strength sports of both sexes. Football, dance, and martial arts such as karate and tai chi practice positively affect bone tissue. Such an impact is not noted in disciplines such as swimming and cycling. Conclusions. Systematic and long-term sports behaviors affect not only the improvement of the condition of bone tissue but also the long-term maintenance of the achieved improvement in the condition of the skeleton. It remains open to determine which sports disciplines lead to the most noticeable improvement in the condition of the ultrasound-examined bone. Further studies using non-invasive methods of bone quantification are needed to determine the specific conditions for the prevention of osteoporosis through physical activity and sport, in particular, the duration of the activity, the size of loads, and other factors related to practicing sports.

Influence of special power loads on the performance of the main muscle groups of young powerlifters of various qualifications

The article presents that the data obtained in the course of the study give an idea of the level of development of the strength of the main muscle groups under the influence of special loads of powerlifters of various sports qualifications. Before modern science and practice of sports training in strength sports there are many problems: the rational distribution of power loads, the development of physical qualities, the increase in the functional reserves of the body, and others that are multifaceted and are solved in a complex way using pedagogical, psychological, medical and biological criteria for their evaluation. The task of the study is to determine the recovery time of power indicators of powerlifters of various sports qualifications after a directed power load and to identify the dynamics of muscle strength development in powerlifters before and after a power load. For powerlifters, extensor muscle strength is preferred. Powerful strength exercises and static efforts when performing competitive powerlifting exercises place great demands on muscle strength and static endurance. The return to the initial data of the strength of different muscle groups of powerlifters after a directed power load is not the same. Regardless of the level of sports qualification, the muscles of the trunk have the longest recovery time. The magnitude of the load in powerlifting is largely limited by the time required to restore the predominantly neuromuscular apparatus after strenuous exercise and heavy loads. Recovery of functions after exercise is characterized by a number of significant features that determine not only the recovery process, but also the hereditary relationship with previous and subsequent muscle activity, the degree of readiness to perform repeated work. The introduction of practical recommendations on the use of power loads for powerlifters into the educational process has made it possible to significantly improve the results of the power abilities of athletes of various sports qualifications.

“You belong in the kitchen”: social media, virtual manhood acts, and women strength sport athletes’ experiences of gender-based violence online

ABSTRACT The virtual world has transformed sport and leisure spaces, including how we communicate and interact with others globally. Despite the positives of social media, it is also a space which may facilitate hate, abuse, discrimination, and gender-based violence. In this study, women strength sport athletes’ experiences and perceptions of gender-based violence through the enactment of Virtual Manhood Acts (VMAs) are explored, using interviews with thirteen competitive women athletes. Findings reveal that VMAs are used to regulate gender norms and ideologies, promote misogyny, and endorse a hierarchical gender order. In addition, women experience appearance-related commentary and gender questioning, which arguably reduces their worth to their appearance, with expectations of conformity to the “male gaze.” Finally, VMAs are targeted towards women through accusations of steroid use and through criticism of form and technique, reinforcing strength sports as a male-domain and marginalising women’s achievements. While previous research has analysed the existence of VMAs online, in this study the importance of considering women’s perceptions of VMAs, and the wider impact they can have, is further considered.

"You can't shoot another bullet until you've reloaded the gun": Coaches' perceptions, practices and experiences of deloading in strength and physique sports.

Deloading refers to a purposeful reduction in training demand with the intention of enhancing preparedness for successive training cycles. Whilst deloading is a common training practice in strength and physique sports, little is known about how the necessary reduction in training demand should be accomplished. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine current deloading practices in competitive strength and physique sports. Eighteen strength and physique coaches from a range of sports (weightlifting, powerlifting, and bodybuilding) participated in semi-structured interviews to discuss their experiences of deloading. The mean duration of coaching experience at ≥ national standard was 10.9 (SD = 3.9) years. Qualitative content analysis identified Three categories: definitions, rationale, and application. Participants conceptualised deloading as a periodic, intentional cycle of reduced training demand designed to facilitate fatigue management, improve recovery, and assist in overall training progression and readiness. There was no single method of deloading; instead, a reduction in training volume (achieved through a reduction in repetitions per set and number of sets per training session) and intensity of effort (increased proximity to failure and/or reduction in relative load) were the most adapted training variables, along with alterations in exercise selection and configuration. Deloading was typically prescribed for a duration of 5 to 7 days and programmed every 4 to 6 weeks, although periodicity was highly variable. Additional findings highlight the underrepresentation of deloading in the published literature, including a lack of a clear operational definition.

Does Caffeine Supplementation Associated with Paralympic Powerlifting Training Interfere with Hemodynamic Indicators?

Exercise, including resistance exercise with high loads, has positive hemodynamic responses such as reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), heart rate (HR), Pressure Product Rate (PPR), and estimated myocardial oxygen volume (MVO2). Caffeine (CA), used to improve performance, tends to interfere with BP and HR. This study aimed to analyze the effects of CA supplementation on hemodynamic indicators in Paralympic weightlifting (PP). The exercise was performed on 14 male athletes (32.4 ± 8.5 years; 81.7 ± 21.9 kg) for three weeks. Two conditions were evaluated: supplementation with CA Anhydrous 9 mg/kg and with placebo (PL). The adapted bench press was used, with 5 × 5 at 80% 1RM. We evaluated BP, HR, PPR, and MVO2, before, after, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 min, and 24 h later. The CA presented higher absolute values in the pressure indicators than the PL, and after 24 h there was an inversion. The HR was higher in the CA and showed a reduction after 10 min. The PPR and MVO2 in the CA presented absolute values greater than the PL, and 24 h later there was an inversion. There was no hypotensive effect, but the use of CA did not present risks related to PPR and MVO2, demonstrating the safe use of this supplement in adapted strength sports.

Joint-level determinants of the dynamic strength index: implications for testing and monitoring

ABSTRACT The aims of this study were to determine the associations and differences between the traditional dynamic strength index (DSIGRF, calculated from ground reaction force [GRF] data) and joint-level dynamic strength indices (DSINJM, calculated from net joint moment [NJM] data). Eight female NCAA Division I lacrosse players performed three maximal effort isometric mid-thigh pulls (IMTP) and countermovement jumps (CMJ). GRF and motion capture data were recorded and used to calculate hip, knee, and ankle NJM. The ratio between peak forces during the IMTP and CMJ tests was used to calculate the DSIGRF and the ratio of peak NJM was used to calculate ankle, knee, and hip DSINJM. Associations and differences between DSIGRF and DSINJM were examined with Pearson’s correlation coefficients, paired t-tests and Hedge’s g effect sizes. The results showed that only the hip DSINJM was correlated with DSIGRF (hip: p = 0.037; r = 0.738). In addition, athletes exhibited significantly greater DSINJM than DSIGRF. Although these results suggest DSIGRF are associated with hip DSINJM, the fact that joint-level DSINJM were generally greater than DSIGRF suggests the ratio between peak NJM during the CMJ and IMTP may not provide intuitive or useful data for strength and conditioning coaches or sport scientists.

COVID-19 Pandemic: Impediment or Opportunity? Considerations Regarding the Physical-Health Impact and Well-Being among Romanian University Students

The global COVID-19 pandemic that is ongoing because of the Coronavirus II (SARS-CoV-2) has had until now a great impact on physical education and sports, especially due to the closure of training facilities and people’s lack of motivation. In Romania, physical activity (PA) and physical education (PE) have also been highly affected, especially among university students. To our knowledge, this is the first study conducted in Romania regarding the influence of the lockdown on the physical health and well-being of university students. This study aims to determine if and how the pandemic affected the university students’ mental and physical health in Romania, but also to highlight new strategies and approaches suggested by them through a questionnaire to enhance and motivate their participation in physical activities. Based on a cross-sectional design, a survey designed in two languages—Romanian and English—was completed by the students from the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca and foreign students that were on a mobility study visit through the Erasmus+ program in Romania. The questionnaire was filled out by 836 university students (age = 18–24 years; males: 57.73%). The findings showed that quarantine in Romania led to a significant increase in sedentarism among students and a reduction in energy for physical activity, which also affected their psychological well-being. The absence of social interactions and onsite classes led to a sedentary lifestyle among students and increased their fear and stress levels. The cancellation of all sports events and PA also led to fewer students remaining physically active. Time off training and leisure time activities caused by the ongoing restrictions might be used for new purposes, such as goal setting, overcoming injury, improving mobility, psychological development, and emphasizing strength sports for health. During the COVID-19 lockdown, sedentarism increased dramatically, especially among young people.

Influence of the diet on somatic differences and the developed power of athletes training strength sports

Introduction: For strength training to be effective, proper nutrition is necessary, based on providing the right amount of energy, as well as optimally balanced macronutrients. Nutrition among bodybuilders, weightlifters and powerlifters differs because the training aims, training methodology and competition itself are different.
 Objective: Strength sports athletes differ from each other in body structure, training methodology and form of competition. The aim of the study was to try to answer the question whether their diets affect somatic variables and leg power.
 Materials and Methods: 60 people remained, which were divided into 4 groups, including 15 weightlifting competitors, 15 powerlifters, 15 bodybuilders and 15 men not training competitive sport
 Results: The quality of the diet used had an impact on the body composition in the control group. In the group of powerlifters, there was a significantly positive correlation between the daily intake of carbohydrates and the percentage of body fat (p <0.05). In the group of bodybuilders, the energy value of food consumed during a week and a day as well as the mass of daily carbohydrates and their energy value significantly correlated with the BMI index. Moreover, the energy value of consumed food expressed in kcal positively correlated with the fat content in the body expressed in kg, as well as with the chest circumference during inhalation and with the circumference of the arm. The daily amount of carbohydrates and the daily energy value of this substrate positively correlated with the circumference of the arm and the thigh. In the athletes, numerous correlations between the diet used and the developed power were demonstrated.
 Conclusion: The diet used by the respondents did not clearly affect the power developed by the respondents. Significant correlations between the quality of the diet used and somatic variables as well as the developed power were noticed only in the group of weightlifters and bodybuilders.

Effects of aerobic and strength training on depression, anxiety, and health self-perception levels during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This study aimed at comparing the depression and anxiety levels, and health self-perception during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic among subjects who practice aerobic, strength, and mixed (aerobic and strength) exercises and nonsports participants. We included 304 Brazilians of both sexes in this cross-sectional study. All participants were recruited through online advertisement and completed a self-administered questionnaire regarding the personal information, level of restriction adopted, physical activity, and mood state screening (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and General Anxiety Disorder-7). We divided the participants into four groups: strength sports group (CrossFit or strength training), aerobic/endurance sports groups (running, cycling, triathlon, or swimming), mixed sports groups (individuals who practice endurance and strength sports), and nonsports group. The Kruskal-Wallis test showed a significant effect of the group on the depression and anxiety levels. Meanwhile, the post-hoc comparisons showed a significantly lower depression level in the mixed and aerobic sports groups than in the strength sports and nonsports groups, and a significantly lower anxiety level in the mixed and aerobic sports groups than in the nonsports group. Furthermore, participants in the mixed, strength, and aerobic sports groups presented a better level of health self-assessment than the nonsports group, and those in the mixed sports group had a better level of health self-assessment than the strength or aerobic sports groups. Individuals practicing aerobic exercises present lower depression and anxiety levels than those practicing strength training and are inactive. However, individuals who practice strength exercises and aerobics have the best levels of health perception.

Changes in Muscle Quality after Physical Rehabilitation Reduce Blood Pressure in Weightlifters with Arterial Hypertension: Randomized Controlled Trial

Hypertension is a frequent diagnosis in power athletes. Aim. To assess the effect of increased muscle oxidative capacity on blood pressure in athletes with arterial hypertension from power sports, heavy weight categories. Material and methods. The study was conducted at the Department of Sports Medicine of the Russian State University of Physical Culture, Sports, Youth and Tourism and lasted 180 days. The study involved 65 representatives of strength sports (weightlifting), heavy weight categories with arterial hypertension. Athletes were randomized into two main groups: the HIIT (High Intensity Interval Training, n=23) group, the MICE (Moderate Intensity Continuous Exercise, n=22) group and the RT (Resistance Training, n=20) control group. The following methods were used to achieve the aim of the study: ergospirometry, muscle tissue oxygenation level measurement, blood pressure measurement and methods of mathematical statistics. Athletes in the main groups trained for 180 days (3 times per week) on a cycle ergometer using a high-intensity interval and uniform protocol, and participants in the control group trained for 180 days (3 times per week) according to their traditional strength protocol. Results. After 180 days of physical rehabilitation, participants of the main groups had increased oxygen consumption at the anaerobic threshold, decreased thigh muscle oxygenation and increased maximum oxygen consumption, resulting in an average decrease in systolic blood pressure of 11.1 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure of 11.2 mm Hg in the intervention groups. Conclusion. The physical rehabilitation systems we have developed for power athletes allow us to effectively and safely influence the oxidative capacity of working muscles and blood pressure, but the time spent by athletes on non-specific training activities in the HIIT system is 38% less.

Effects of Dominance and Sprint Interval Exercise on Testosterone and Cortisol Levels in Strength-, Endurance-, and Non-Training Men.

Simple SummaryExercise is a powerful stimulus to the endocrine system, modifying plasma concentrations of many hormones, including testosterone and cortisol, which are often used to describe fatigue in sport. In our investigation, we wanted to explore the hormonal response (testosterone and cortisol) in saliva after acute exercises in men who perform endurance-training and strength-training exercises compared to a non-training group. Participants performed sprint interval exercise. During the whole exercise, the participants’ heart rates were measured, and a rating of perceived exertion was assessed immediately after each bout. The study showed that there were no differences in testosterone and cortisol changes in the endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups after the sprint interval exercise. We suppose that one session of the sprint interval training should have more volume (more or longer duration of sprints) to provoke testosterone and cortisol reaction in endurance-training and strength-training individuals. However, the heart rates after acute exercise in the endurance-training and strength-training groups were lower than in participants from the non-training group.The aim of the study was to investigate the response of testosterone and cortisol to sprint interval exercises (SIEs) and to determine the role of dominance. The experiment was conducted in a group of 96 men, divided into endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups. Participants performed SIEs consisting of 5 × 10-s all-out bouts with a 50-s active recovery. Using the passive drool method, testosterone and cortisol concentrations were measured in saliva samples at rest at 10 min pre and 12 min post exercise. Participants’ heart rate (HR) was measured during the whole exercise. Dominance was assessed by the participants before the study; the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was measured immediately after each bout. The study showed that those who trained in endurance and strength sports had significantly lower mean HRs after five acute 10-s interval bouts than those in the non-training group (p = 0.006 and p = 0.041, respectively). Dominance has an inverse relation to changes in HR; however, it has no relation to hormone response. No significant differences were observed in testosterone and cortisol changes in the endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups after SIE (p > 0.05), which may indicate that the exercise volume was too low.

Effects of Forearm Compression Sleeves on Muscle Hemodynamics and Muscular Strength and Endurance Parameters in Sports Climbing: A Randomized, Controlled Crossover Trial.

Purpose: Wearing compression garments is a commonly used intervention in sports to improve performance and facilitate recovery. Some evidence supports the use of forearm compression to improve muscle tissue oxygenation and enhance sports climbing performance. However, evidence is lacking for an effect of compression garments on hand grip strength and specific sports climbing performance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the immediate effects of forearm compression sleeves on muscular strength and endurance of finger flexor muscles in sports climbers. Materials and Methods: This randomized crossover study included 24 sports climbers who performed one familiarization trial and three subsequent test trials while wearing compression forearm sleeves (COMP), non-compressive placebo forearm sleeves (PLAC), or no forearm sleeves (CON). Test trials consisted of three performance measurements (intermittent hand grip strength and endurance measurements, finger hang, and lap climbing) at intervals of at least 48 h in a randomized order. Muscle oxygenation during hand grip and finger hang measurements was assessed by near-infrared spectroscopy. The maximum blood lactate level, rate of perceived exertion, and forearm muscle pain were also determined directly after the lap climbing trials. Results: COMP resulted in higher changes in oxy[heme] and tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) during the deoxygenation (oxy[heme]: COMP –10.7 ± 5.4, PLAC –6.7 ± 4.3, CON –6.9 ± 5.0 [μmol]; p = 0.014, ηp 2 = 0.263; StO2: COMP –4.0 ± 2.2, PLAC –3.0 ± 1.4, CON –2.8 ± 1.8 [%]; p = 0.049, ηp 2 = 0.194) and reoxygenation (oxy [heme]: COMP 10.2 ± 5.3, PLAC 6.0 ± 4.1, CON 6.3 ± 4.9 [μmol]; p = 0.011, ηp 2 = 0.274; StO2: COMP 3.5 ± 1.9, PLAC 2.4 ± 1.2, CON 2.3 ± 1.9 [%]; p = 0.028, ηp 2 = 0.225) phases of hand grip measurements, whereas total [heme] concentrations were not affected. No differences were detected between the conditions for the parameters of peak force and fatigue index in the hand grip, time to failure and hemodynamics in the finger hang, or performance-related parameters in the lap climbing measurements (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusions: Forearm compression sleeves did not enhance hand grip strength and endurance, sports climbing performance parameters, physiological responses, or perceptual measures. However, they did result in slightly more pronounced changes of oxy [heme] and StO2 in the deoxygenation and reoxygenation phases during the hand grip strength and endurance measurements.

A comparison of dietary acid load between team, endurance, and strength sports

Purpose: Since the dietary acid load (PRAL) may affect the acid-base balance of the body, there is an increasing interest in its role in sports performance. Typical nutritional requirements of different sports, associated with its physiological demands, might be reflected in the acid load of their diet. Thus, the purpose of this study is to compare the dietary acid load between team, endurance, and strength athletes and to determine the associations between PRAL and hydration status.

Analysis of creation of a tug-of-war team in the State University of Trade and Economics

Tug-of-war is one of the most accessible sports. Today, it is a sport for both, men and women and sometimes you can hold mixed competitions, where men and women are on the same team. Tug-of-war competitions are quite popular and considered as one of the most interesting sports. Nowadays, due to the high intensity of study in the main disciplines, students of higher education institutions have little free time and low participation in physical training and sports. One of the methods of involving higher education applicants in this type of activity is the spread of competitive practice and the development of team sports, sports like tug-of-war.
 The article presents the analysis of the creation of the university tug-of-war team, which reached the highest competitive level. Besides maintaining a good physical shape, activities of this kind help students develop their social skills, develop the ability to work in a team, interact effectively with other people, discipline and have other equally significant benefits. Physical education classes at the university are divided into sections. Higher education applicants are divided into sections with different sports specializations, taking into account the interest, previous motor experience and the availability of certain special trainings. Higher education applicants in strength sports were involved in the training of wrestlers and boxers; volleyball and basketball players were invited to select tall athletes. The task of the professors of the Department of Physical Culture and Sports was to interest student youth, to participate in sports activities and events, and as a consequence to the development of health and sufficient and excellent physical shape. In order to expand the competitive practice of the university athletes and to popularize this sport and sports in general, all the important conditions for the creation of a tug-of-war were provided.

Pectoralis major ruptures.

Injuries of pectoralis major (PM) muscle are among rare muscle injuries. Due to the lack of experience and knowledge in this field, they are often missed or improperly treated. Most often they are caused by an indirect mechanism, during strength sports, typically using the bench press. In clinical terms, they are typically characterized by specific disorder of the anterior axillary fold and a hematoma and, after subsidence of the swelling, disfiguration with medial retraction of the muscle belly. The most beneficial imaging method to examine these injuries is MRI with an emphasis on a properly set protocol. According to the Cordasco classification, they are categorized as PM distensions, isolated and complete ruptures. Ruptures involve most frequently the musculotendinous junction and tendon insertion. Operative treatment is indicated in isolated complete ruptures of one portion and complete ruptures of both portions of the pectoralis major tendon, predominantly in young active patients with high functional demands. Surgery should be preferably performed without delay, within no more than 6 weeks, in order to ensure the best results. The most common operative technique is reinsertion of the muscle by means of implants or direct suture. In chronic ruptures, it is often necessary to perform a reconstruction with a tendon graft. The results are good, although worse as compared to an early treatment.

Strength and Power-Related Measures in Assessing Core Muscle Performance in Sport and Rehabilitation.

While force-velocity-power characteristics of resistance exercises, such as bench presses and squats, have been well documented, little attention has been paid to load, force, and power-velocity relationships in exercises engaging core muscles. Given that power produced during lifting tasks or trunk rotations plays an important role in most sport-specific and daily life activities, its measurement should represent an important part of the test battery in both athletes and the general population. The aim of this scoping review was 1) to map the literature related to testing methods assessing core muscle strength and stability in sport and rehabilitation, chiefly studies with particular focus on force-velocity-power characteristics of exercises involving the use of core muscles, 2) and to identify gaps in existing studies and suggest further research in this field. The literature search was conducted on Cochrane Library databases, Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed and MEDLINE, which was completed by SpringerLink, Google Scholar and Elsevier. The inclusion criteria were met in 37 articles. Results revealed that among a variety of studies investigating the core stability and core strength in sport and rehabilitation, only few of them analyzed force–velocity–power characteristics of exercises involving the use of core muscles. Most of them evaluated maximal isometric strength of the core and its endurance. However, there are some studies that assessed muscle power during lifting tasks at different loads performed either with free weights or using the Smith machine. Similarly, power and velocity were assessed during trunk rotations performed with different weights when standing or sitting. Nevertheless, there is still scant research investigating the power-velocity and force-velocity relationship during exercises engaging core muscles in able-bodied and para athletes with different demands on stability and strength of the core. Therefore, more research is needed to address this gap in the literature and aim research at assessing strength and power-related measures within cross-sectional and intervention studies. A better understanding of the power-force-velocity profiles during exercises with high demands on the core musculature has implications for designing sport training and rehabilitation programs for enhancement of athletes’ performance and/or decrease their risk of back pain.