Direct Strength Research Articles

Estimating soil strength using ultra high-resolution seismic data: A case study from a shallow water wind farm

The increasing global reliance on offshore wind farms as a sustainable energy source necessitates precise soil assessment for foundation design due to their high foundation costs and complex integration into marine environments. This study explores the use of ultrahigh-resolution seismic (UHRS) data in conjunction with cone penetration test data for soil strength estimation in offshore wind farm development. We develop a convolutional neural network-based approach that leverages UHRS data for direct soil strength estimation, aiming to address the challenges of limited cone penetration test measurements and potential overfitting in complex geologic settings. Our methodology involves preprocessing UHRS and cone penetration test data, interpreting and integrating geologic unit (GU) information, and applying repeated k-fold cross validation to evaluate model performance. The field data results demonstrate the model’s efficacy in accurately predicting cone penetration test curve trends, albeit with some amplitude discrepancies. We highlight the significance of geologic interpretation in predicting soil strength and identify the dependency on valid data within each GU as a limitation.

Study on time-frequency domain characteristics and cross-media communication of laser acoustic signals based on optical breakdown mechanism

Abstract Cross-media communication is a hot research issue at present. The use of sound waves generated by laser induced sound mechanism for cross-media communication is a new topic proposed in recent years. It is of great significance to study the characteristics of laser acoustic signal and the feasibility study for cross-media detection. The time-frequency characteristics and directivity of the laser induced sound signal are studied on the self-built experimental platform. The results show that the pulse duration of the laser acoustic signal is about 0.2ms, and the peak frequency is about 14.89kHz. The directivity is anisotropy, the signal strength in horizontal direction is the strongest, and the signal strength perpendicular to the water surface is the weakest, so it has a good horizontal distance transmission ability. This paper verifies the detection system of trans-air-sea interface communication and trans-air-sea interface communication based on laser sound and conducts the communication experiment of laser acoustic signal. By modulating laser energy, the underwater acoustic signal is modulated in time domain, and the signal communication with 0-bit error rate of 8bps within the meter is realized. The detection threshold of acoustic signal is calculated to be 44.93dB after horizontal transmission of 1km. The analysis and simulation of water surface micro-motion based on laser induced sound are carried out. The results show that the wave crest of water surface generated by laser acoustic signal through underwater reflection reaches the order of micron and can be detected by radar. The surface wave intensity is little affected by the depth of detection, so it could work in deep water. This study provides a certain experimental and theoretical basis for laser communication across the air and sea interface.

Weave structures of polyester fabric affect the tensile strength and microplastic fiber emission during the laundry process

This study utilized grab and strip testing methods to examine the relationship between three weave structures—plain, twill, and satin—and their tensile strengths in both warp and weft directions. In addition, microplastic fiber (MPF) emissions from these three weave structures were quantified at different states of the laundry process using filtration and microscopy. The grab and strip tests revealed that twill- and satin-woven fabrics exhibited higher tensile strengths in the warp direction compared to the weft orientation. In contrast, the plain weave structure showed similar tensile strengths in both warp and weft directions. During laundry in the washing machine, MPF emissions in the first drainage were the highest regardless of the weave structure. Moreover, the satin weave pattern released the most MPFs among the three common weave structures at 5054 particles/L. This weave pattern also had the weakest tensile strength of 3.1 N/cm2 in the weft direction of the three weave structures evaluated. The results demonstrated a strong inverse correlation between higher tensile strengths in the weaker direction (warp or weft) and MPF emissions. Among the weave structures investigated, the twill pattern had the lowest MPF emission, followed by plain weave, with the satin-woven fabric emitting the highest levels.

Improvements of microstructure and mechanical properties of wire-arc directed energy deposition 2024 aluminum alloy after adding TiC nanoparticles

ABSTRACT To address issues such as grain coarsening, high porosity, and poor mechanical properties that commonly occur in high-strength 2024 aluminum alloy (AA2024) during directed energy deposition using an electric arc (DED-A), this work proposes a strategy of adding TiC nanoparticles to the AA2024 welding wire for DED-A and reveals the mechanism of TiC nanoparticles modification. AA2024 and TiCP/AA2024 composite were fabricated by DED-A. By adding TiC nanoparticles, the average grain diameter of the as-deposited TiCP/AA2024 composites considerably decreases from 65.4 μm to 16.4 μm. TiC nanoparticles refine the grains by promoting nucleation and inhibiting grain growth. Correspondingly, the mechanical properties of the as-deposited TiCP/AA2024 have been significantly improved: the horizontal tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation are 304 , 174 MPa, and 9.5%, respectively, which represent increases of 75%, 70%, and 164% compared to AA2024, and the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation in the vertical direction are 287 MPa, 165 MPa, and 9.9%, respectively, with no significant anisotropy observed.

Analyzing the inelastic response of wind-excited steel tall buildings through a reduced-order model incorporating strength and stiffness degradation along with P-Delta effects

When wind-excited tall buildings undergo vibrations beyond their linear elastic range, it becomes imperative to account for both strength and stiffness degradation and P-Delta effects. This study investigates the influence of the degradation and P-Delta effects on the inelastic response of wind-excited tall buildings through a reduced-order building model, wherein the alongwind and crosswind building responses are presumed to be contributed by the fundamental modes. The backbone curves of the hysteretic relationships between the generalized restoring forces and displacements are developed through monotonic static modal pushover analysis utilizing a high-fidelity finite element building model with consideration of P-Delta effect. A cyclic modal pushover analysis is performed to ascertain the degradation of generalized building stiffness and strength in both translation directions, stemming from the deterioration of steel material in stiffness and strength. Subsequently, a biaxial hysteretic force model is employed to depict the hysteretic relationships between generalized forces and displacements, factoring in degradation and P-Delta effects. The inelastic response of a 60-story steel building subjected to both alongwind and crosswind load excitations is quantified through response history analysis to assess the accuracy of the reduced-order building model and to evaluate the influence of degradation of material strength and pre-yield stiffness and P-Delta effects on various responses.

Associations of biomotor and physiological measures with anthropometric characteristics in field hockey players: a survey on pre-competitive period

Background and Study Aim: Field hockey is a dynamic sport that involves a combination of speed, agility, and endurance, with players having to satisfy particular physical and physiological demands in order to perform at their best. The primary goal of this study was to investigate the association between field hockey player's anthropometric characteristics and biomotor and physiological measures. Material and Methods: For the purpose of determining the biomotor measures, muscular strength (MS), speed, and change of direction (COD) were used. The VO2 max, anaerobic power (AP), muscular endurance (ME), and vital capacity (VC) were used to determine the physiological measures. In the game of field hockey, twenty forwards, sixteen half-backs and ten defenders fulfilled all the outcome measures. The intensity and directionality of the association between biomotor and physiological tests and anthropometrics characteristics were determined by using Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients (r), and positional differences were tested using analysis of variance. Results: Body mass significantly affected performance metrics. Body mass was moderately negatively correlated with speed (p<0.05) and COD (p<0.05). MS (p<0.01), VC (p<0.01), AP (p<0.01) and VO2 max (p<0.05) were positively linked with body mass. Performance was also affected by height. Height is inversely correlated with speed (p<0.01) and COD (p<0.01). MS (p<0.01) and AP (p<0.05) had a moderate positive correlation with height. Body mass index (BMI) had a moderate positive correlation with speed (p<0.05), VC (p<0.01), and VO2 max, (p<0.05) but not with MS, COD, and ME. MS had a moderate negative correlation with COD (p<0.05) and a positive correlation with ME (p<0.05). Speed had a significant very large positive correlation with COD (p<0.05, r=.729), ME had a positive correlation with VO2 max, (p<0.05) and VC had a positive correlation with AP (p<0.05). There were no significant position differences in all the selected measures. Conclusion: The study concludes that body mass, height, and BMI greatly affect hockey players' strength, speed, and endurance. This study recommends that hockey coaches and trainers consider body mass, height, and BMI while training players. Performance may be increased by targeting anthropometric aspects, including strength, speed, and endurance.

CONVERGENCE STUDY ON ASYMMETRICALLY FLEXURAL PROBLEM OF COLD-FORMED CHANNEL SECTIONS

Current Direct Strength Method equations computing flexural strength of cold-form members were reported to be over-conservative when applied to members bent about the asymmetrical axis. Finite Element Analysis was used to develop new equations. However, the convergence study, which ensures the accuracy of the Finite Element Analysis result, has not been presented clearly. Thus, this paper performed a convergence study on the strength problem of channel-section asymmetrically flexural members having the web in compression. 33 cold-form channel cross-sections utilized in Oey and Papagelis’ study were modeled into ABAQUS to calculate the elastic buckling moment and the ultimate strength. Two factors affected the accuracy of the models, i.e., the mesh size, being 5 mm, D/20, D/40, and D/60, and the member length, ranging from 0.3D to 7D, where D is the cross-section height, were examined. The investigation shows that the seeding method considering the local buckling of the web is the most justifiable. Therefore, the seed size being 1/40 the cross-section height is suggested. This seed size is proven to produce results with reasonable accuracy. To avoid the end effect as well as the influence of incorrect half-wavelength, it is recommended that the member length should be chosen as greater than or equal to two times the cross-section height, and the lengthier the better.

Experimental Investigation into the Influence of Filament Layer Arrangement on the Tensile Strength of FFF-Manufactured Components

One major disadvantage of fused filament fabricated components (FFF) is its well-known anisotropy, which results from the layer-wise adding of material, and that it is not always possible to avoid loading in the layer build-up direction. In particular, components that are exposed to multi-axial load conditions must manage with reduced tensile strength in the build-up direction. This work is therefore concerned with improving the tensile strength transverse to the layering by changing the layer structure without directly changing the material itself. Therefore, the print-defining G-Code was modified to change the arrangement between the layers. The effectiveness of this method was investigated by means of tensile tests using thermoplastic samples made of Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA), Poly Cyclohexylenedimethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PCTG), Poly Ethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PETG) and Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) for layer thicknesses of 0.16 mm and 0.28 mm. The results show that the G-Code modification generally resulted in an increase in tensile strength. For PETG, an improvement of 25% was achieved.

Study on Interlayer Interface Deterioration of Double-Block Ballastless Track in Humid and Hot Environments Based on Acoustic Emission Technique

The deterioration of the interlayer interface of a double-block ballastless track is affected by the environmental temperature and moisture conditions, which will have a negative effect on its service life. Composite specimens with interlayer interfaces of double-block ballastless track were fabricated and deteriorated by an accelerated method, i.e., immersed in saturated ammonium chloride solution with various temperatures for different times. Then, the deterioration condition and mechanical properties of the composite specimens were investigated experimentally by a universal material testing machine and acoustic emission technique. The automatic sensor test (AST) method is capable of assessing the deterioration condition of the interlayer interface based on the relative wave velocity. The deterioration depth of the interlayer interface tends to increase with increasing solution temperature and immersion time. Both the solution temperature and immersion time have a negative impact on the splitting tensile strength and direct shear strength. A linear relation is found between the splitting tensile strength (direct shear strength) and the cumulative AE energy released at the fracture moment. The damage factor defined by the cumulative AE energy for most composite specimens is no greater than 0.2 before they are going to be fractured but increases sharply to 1.0 at the fracture moment.

Comparison of the mechanical properties of porcine buccal mucosa and ureter and the clinical implications.

Buccal mucosal grafts have a well-established role in urology regarding the management of ureteric stricture disease. Despite its established use as a graft material there is a lack of data on the mechanical properties of buccal mucosa. We aim to compare the passive mechanical properties of porcine buccal mucosa with the ureter. Buccal mucosa (n = 20) and ureteric specimens (n = 21) were harvested from 19 domestic pigs at the time of euthanasia. Mechanical testing was performed using a uniaxial tensometer to generate stress-strain curves. From these curves, ultimate tensile strength and elastic modulus were calculated. Data was analysed, and one-way ANOVA testing was used to assess for significance variation in mechanical response due to direction of testing, and between tissue types. Porcine ureteric specimens displayed mechanical anisotropy, with a significant difference in the elastic modulus depending on the direction of testing (p = 0.005), and a higher mean ultimate tensile strength in the longitudinal (498.09kPa) compared to the transverse (263.99kPa) direction (p = 0.0005). Buccal mucosa was isotropic with no significant difference in elastic modulus or ultimate tensile strength according to direction of testing. Comparison of tissue types showed a significantly greater mean ultimate tensile strength in the longitudinal direction (p = 0.002) in ureter compared to buccal mucosa. We present the first comparison of the mechanical properties of buccal mucosa with ureter, and demonstrate significant variation in elastic modulus and ultimate tensile strength between the tissue types. These findings have important clinical implications for physiological function and in the design of alternative approaches for reconstruction in buccal mucosa grafted ureters.

A Direct Measurement Method for the Uniaxial Tensile Strength of Rock

A universally applicable direct tension test method is proposed in this paper based on the concept of “compression-to-tension”. Using this method, one or two typical rocks were selected for each of the three types of rocks. The testing results of the direct tension method proposed were compared with the internationally recommended Brazilian splitting method to validate the feasibility of the direct tension method. Results showed that the tensile strengths of six typical rocks were consistent using the direct tensile test method proposed in this study and the Brazilian splitting method recommended internationally. The direct tensile strength deviation coefficient (Cv) of the six types of rocks was less than 0.1, indicating very small variability. In this study, the deviation coefficient (Cv) of the axial displacement corresponding to the tensile strength in both the direct tensile and indirect tensile tests was also less than 0.1, reflecting minimal variability. This shows the consistency of the two tensile test results to a certain extent, and also shows that the direct tensile test method is feasible to determine the tensile strength of rock.

Practical Design of Cold-Formed Steel Sections by the Direct Strength Method

Cold-formed steel are among the most widely used in steel construction, being extensively employed in roofing and lightweight structures in general. Despite their popularity from a construction perspective, due to the existing manufacturing and utilization facilities, they prove to be quite complex from a design standpoint, as verifying these components involves extensive and complex calculation procedures due to the various global and local instability phenomena that may occur. Among the three design methods presented by the Brazilian standard NBR 7190, this study applies the Direct Strength Method in the development of a computational application that allows for the practical design of cold-formed steel subjected to oblique composite bending. This addresses the vast majority of calculation situations encountered in practice. The application has been tested in various design scenarios, and the results have been compared with those provided by other methods recommended by NBR 7190, showing a highly satisfactory performance.

Distortional Strength and DSM Design of Cold-Formed Steel Lipped Channel Beams under Transverse Loadings

This paper reported the results of an ongoing numerical (ABAQUS shell finite element) investigation on the distortional buckling, post-buckling and ultimate strength behaviours and DSM (Direct Strength Design) Design of cold-formed steel beams subjected to major-axis non-uniform bending due to one midspan point load (transverse applied load). The beams analysed consisted of single-span lipped channel members exhibiting (i) 15 geometries, (ii) end sections that are locally and globally pinned and may warp freely, (iii) triangular bending moment diagrams, and (iv) 8 yield stresses, selected to cover a wide distortional slenderness range. After acquiring in-depth insight into how the triangular bending moment diagram influences the beam distortional buckling and post-buckling behaviours, an extensive numerical (shell finite element) parametric study is carried out in order to gather significant distortional failure moment data concerning lipped channel beams. These failure moments are then employed to assess the merits of the available DSM beam distortional strength curves in predicting them, namely (i) the one currently codified in North America (AISI 2016) and (ii) those proposed by Martins et al. (2017). The above curves were found to be inadequate for providing safe and accurate predictions of failure moments, highlighting the need to continue developing an efficient and reliable DSM-based design approach for beams failing in distortional modes under non-uniform bending.

Web shear buckling capacity of a stiffened Z-purlin: reporting of experimental tests

Over the last few years there was a growing demand for structural solutions with lower steel consumption in the design of portal frames. It is considered that cold-formed steel (CFS) represents a consumption of 30 to 40% of steel in the entire structure, due to its great applicability in roof systems. Purlins with Z-sections have capabilities to achieve greater spans than other sections due to the continuity provided by overlapping connections. Greater spans require higher sections, thus increasing the susceptibility to local buckling of the web when the purlin is subjected to bending. Therefore, there is the need to introduce web stiffeners with complex geometry, providing better structural performance to local buckling strength. However, this also introduces complex web behaviour in the presence of shear, as result it requires advanced analytical, experimental and numerical studies to assess the web shear buckling mode of failure of such sections. In this context, as a first incursion in this field, the authors report in this paper some experimental tests of a new stiffened web cold-formed Z-section in the Brazilian market aiming the web shear buckling mode of failure. Consequently, an experimental setup of simply-supported purlins with short spans under 3-point bending are carried out. The flanges were locked to investigate the structural behaviour of CFS under predominantly shear. The resistances are compared between experimental data and direct strength method (DSM) as prescribed in the AISI S100. The results were evaluated providing a rich understanding of the structural behaviour of the CFS Z-sections with stiffened web and complex geometry.

Reliability analysis in the design of cold-formed steel built-up I sections by modified Direct Strength Method

Cold-formed steel (CFS) framing is an economical and efficient structural solution, as it provides high strength and low self-weight. Built-up sections, formed by combining two or more CFS members, can reduce instabilities and obtain more versatility. An approach adopted in standards from several countries for the design of CFS bars is the direct strength method (DSM), which allows calculation of axial force from elastic buckling loads, considering global, local and distortional buckling modes. Currently, there are proposals to modify the DSM for the design of built-up sections, aiming to better fit experimental and numerical data. This study aimed to investigate these modifications of original DSM formulae by applying them to a database of experimental compression tests on built-up “I”, or back-to-back, sections. Using the database results, it was possible to calculate the professional factor (P), obtained from the ratio between experimental and theoretical results. To obtain reliability indices (β) related to theoretical methods, the professional factor was evaluated as a continuous random variable, according to data grouping by section type, failure type, and all one. The reliability index (β) was obtained using FOSM, FORM and Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) reliability methods for load combinations from AISI S100 (LRFD and LSD) and NBR 14762.

Local-distortional-global buckling interaction os lipped channel steel cold-formed columns

It is well-established that axially loaded thin-walled steel cold-formed members are susceptible to elastic buckling. This has been a focal point of numerous research studies, leading to insights into various buckling interaction cases, including local-global (LG), local-distortional (LD), distortional-global (DG), and local-distortional-global (LDG) interactions. This investigation specifically focuses on the triple buckling interaction LDG, building upon the authors' previously proposed design solution for LD buckling interaction. The study was conducted using experimental and finite element method (FEM) column results, creating a comprehensive database to validate the proposed solutions. The first research step involved verifying the accuracy of the shell FEM model by calibrating with experimental results of lipped channel (LC) columns developing the LDG buckling. Once the FEM model's accuracy was confirmed, a parametric study was conducted to support the development of the proposed LDG design solution for LC columns. The proposed design equations adhere to the core principle of the direct strength method, capable of incorporating all single buckling modes (L, D, and G) and their combinations (LG, LD, and LDG). Comparisons were made using LRFD-based reliability analysis, which confirmed that the proposed solution is reliable, easy to apply, and aligns with the usual design principles and parameters found in current codes and standards for steel cold-formed structures. Additionally, DG and LDG design approaches from other authors are mentioned and discussed in the context of the findings of the present investigation.

Reliability of built-up cold-formed steel beams designed by the direct strength method

Built-up cold-formed steel (CFS) beams are composed of two or more sections that are joined together with welds, bolts or screws. Although PFF composite bars are commonly used in bending applications, the structural design of these sections requires further investigation. This study proposed a critical review of research related to the structural behavior and designing methodology of these elements. A review of published articles, encompassing experimental studies and numerical simulations of these elements, was conducted. The safety of built-up beams subjected to bending, designed according to the Direct Strength Method (AISI S100, 2016; NBR 14762, 2010), was evaluated and for the statistical study of the model error variable, beam test results obtained from literature were compared to the resistant capacities obtained by the direct strength method (DSM). The structural safety verification of built-up beams was performed using first-order reliability methods to assess the safety level for different load combinations. A calibration procedure for NBR 14762 (2010) was also presented, obtaining the resistance factor for a target reliability index.

The Recycling Use of Concrete Waste as Aggregate to Produce Different Types of Concrete

The present study depends on two types of concrete: the first and second samples belong to Portland cement with a high strength of 52.5 R, and ordinary Portland cement with a normal strength of 42.5 N, respectively. The physical tests for these two samples according to Iraqi Standard Specification No. 5 of 2019 were conducted. Whereas the third and fourth samples of concrete waste were taken from Mosul City and Al-Anbar Governorate. The concrete waste samples were broken into different-size particles as a fine and coarse aggregate using a mechanical crusher (Los Angeles). According to the Iraqi Standard Specification No. 45 (1984, the Physical and chemical tests for both fine and coarse natural aggregate and recycled concrete waste were conducted. The physical and mechanical results of the recycled aggregate testing samples were found to be within the limits of specifications, in which a reference concrete was made from the standard cement samples with natural aggregate for comparison. The natural aggregate was replaced with 100% recycled aggregate, and its behavior was studied through mechanical properties tests, including compressive strength, flexural resistance, and direct tensile resistance within 7 and 28 days. The results show a decrease in the compressive, flexural, and direct tensile strength in the subjected samples compared to the reference specimens. The study concluded that a 100% replacement ratio of coarse and fine recycled aggregate can be used successfully with different types of cement to obtain a new type of concrete that can be used in several engineering fields. The mechanical properties of the new concrete depend mainly on the type, class and quality of the natural cement even on the properties of the recycled aggregate.

Risk factors of under-five and infant mortality: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Ensuring child survival is a critical global challenge, requiring a robust and comprehensive understanding of the risk factors contributing to under-five mortality (U5M). We aimed to synthesise and summarise the current available evidence on risk factors of U5M and infant mortality worldwide to inform global child health programmes. We searched six major databases (Embase, Medline, Scopus, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Global Health) and repositories of systematic reviews, as well as grey literature sources to identify systematic reviews and meta-analyses that examined the associations between risk factors of U5M and infant mortality between 1 January 1990 and 4 March 2024. The quality of reviews was assessed using A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews, Version 2 (AMSTAR 2). The strength of evidence and direction of associations was graded. Of 5684 records, we included 32 reviews (including five systematic reviews without meta-analysis) which comprised 1042 primary studies. We synthesised 28 and 29 unique risk factors associated with U5M and infant mortality, respectively. Although there was no convincing evidence for the risk factors, we found probable evidence of association between exclusive breastfeeding (consistent negative association), and maternal death (consistent positive association) with U5M. There was also probable evidence for the association of short (<18 months) interpregnancy intervals (less consistent negative association), pre-pregnancy maternal obesity (consistent positive association), and maternal HIV infection (consistent positive association) with infant mortality. While the review identified a broad range of risk factors, the overall evidence for most factors associated with under-five and infant mortality was 'limited-suggestive' or 'limited and no conclusive'. Thus, further high-quality studies are required to strengthen the evidence on these risk factors. PROSPERO CRD42023455542.

Mechanical properties and failure mechanisms of 3D layer‐to‐layer interlock woven composites

AbstractThree‐dimensional layer‐to‐layer interlock woven composites (3D LTLIWCs) have been widely used in various aero‐engine blade models because of their excellent near‐net forming capabilities for complex components, as well as significant advantages in structural design flexibility and high damage tolerance. In this paper, a typical and two new 3D LTLIWCs, specifically including 1/3 twill (S‐I), modified satin (S‐II), and stuffer twill (S‐III), were manufactured by two design methods: varying interweaving frequency and introducing stuffer yarns. Three‐point bending and uniaxial tensile tests were conducted along the 0° (warp) and 90° (weft) directions. The damage morphology and failure mechanism of the specimens were revealed by nondestructive testing technology and topological structure analysis. The results showed that the fabric structure significantly influenced the mechanical properties and failure mechanisms of the 3D LTLIWCs. Compared with S‐I and S‐II, S‐III demonstrated a 17.9%–80.2% increase in bending strength and a 35.3%–162.8% increase in tensile strength in the 0° direction, while the bending strength and tensile strength in the 90° direction increased by 1.1%–73.3% and 9.3%–50.4%, respectively. Notably, S‐III exhibited lower bending and tensile damage in the 0° direction than S‐I and S‐II, with a smaller propagation range of resin and interface cracks and less severe shear fracture of the load‐bearing yarns. This study can provide a useful reference for the optimal design of fabric structure for 3D woven composite blades.Highlights Two design schemes for optimizing 3D LTLI fabric structure were compared. Introducing stuffer yarns improved the mechanical properties of 3D LTLIWCs. S‐III composites exhibited the highest failure strength in all test directions. Full‐field strain distribution was closely related to the interlocking patterns. Fabric structures had a great influence on the failure modes of 3D LTLIWCs.