Strength Of Belief Research Articles

A Formal Framework for Knowledge Acquisition: Going beyond Machine Learning.

Philosophers frequently define knowledge as justified, true belief. We built a mathematical framework that makes it possible to define learning (increasing number of true beliefs) and knowledge of an agent in precise ways, by phrasing belief in terms of epistemic probabilities, defined from Bayes’ rule. The degree of true belief is quantified by means of active information : a comparison between the degree of belief of the agent and a completely ignorant person. Learning has occurred when either the agent’s strength of belief in a true proposition has increased in comparison with the ignorant person (), or the strength of belief in a false proposition has decreased (). Knowledge additionally requires that learning occurs for the right reason, and in this context we introduce a framework of parallel worlds that correspond to parameters of a statistical model. This makes it possible to interpret learning as a hypothesis test for such a model, whereas knowledge acquisition additionally requires estimation of a true world parameter. Our framework of learning and knowledge acquisition is a hybrid between frequentism and Bayesianism. It can be generalized to a sequential setting, where information and data are updated over time. The theory is illustrated using examples of coin tossing, historical and future events, replication of studies, and causal inference. It can also be used to pinpoint shortcomings of machine learning, where typically learning rather than knowledge acquisition is in focus.

A Method Proposal for Determining Health Communication Campaigns’ Messages

Abstract This research is focused on the question of deciding what to say in a (health) communication campaign. The goal is to search for ways of selecting/tailoring effective campaign messages which are persuasive for the targeted audiences. Accordingly, by considering Social Judgement Theory in the foundation of Integrated Behavior Model; two variables, belief strength and involvement are proposed with a method to predict the persuasiveness of campaign messages. When the people have strong beliefs and high involvements, a message that does not match with the most important behavioral determinant should be used in the campaign. However, when the people have weak beliefs, a message matching with the most important behavioral determinant should be used without considering the involvement level. These hypotheses are tested in the field of health communication on (cervical cancer) HPV vaccine acceptance and all accepted. CATI is used to collect data on surveys. The study sample, which is derived through a method close to probability sampling, is consisted of mothers who live in Istanbul/Turkey and have at least one 11-26-year-old daughter(N=145). Multiple linear regressions, decision trees (CHAID) and ANOVA are used for the analysis.

Deprived, Radical, Alternatively Informed

The Covid-19 pandemic was accompanied by a massive increase of the supply and demand for pandemic-related information. Similarly, conspiracy theories about the origins and functions of the Covid-19 virus flourished during the early stages of the pandemic. The present study draws on a nationally representative sample of the German population aged 18+ (N = 1,207) to investigate factors that are associated with people’s susceptibility to believe in such theories. We draw on research from sociology, political science, and communication to predict that factors related to relative deprivation, political radicalism, and the consumption of alternative news on websites, video platforms, Social Network Sites, and messenger services are associated with an increased belief in Covid-19 conspiracy theories. The data largely supports our assumptions. Additionally, we show that the strength of belief in Covid-19 conspiracy theories is associated with reduced vaccination intentions, which suggests detrimental real-world health consequences of such a belief.

Parent preferences for adolescent depression treatment: The role of past treatment experience and biological etiological beliefs

BackgroundParents play a crucial role in facilitating depression treatment for adolescents, yet parental preferences for adolescent treatments are ill-understood. Past treatment experience and belief in a biological model of depression may impact preferences, and warrant investigation. MethodsParents (N = 143) of teens (12–18 years) completed a survey assessing preference for adolescent depression treatments, treatment knowledge, and beliefs about the biological etiology of depression. Details about parents' and adolescents' past mental health concerns and treatment were obtained. Parents indicated degree of preference from 0 (Not at all preferable) - 10 (Highly preferable) for six treatment options (counselling, antidepressant medication, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, electroconvulsive therapy, exercise, no treatment) for three adolescents vignettes depicting varying depression severity (Mild/Moderate, Severe, and Treatment-Resistant). ResultsMean preference ratings across all vignette severities were high for counselling (range: 8.57–9.38) and exercise (range: 9.04–9.25). Multiple regression revealed parental past experience of psychopharmacological treatment was significantly associated with current preference for adolescent antidepressant medication, with increased helpfulness and milder/fewer adverse events associated with stronger preference. Greater perceived helpfulness of past teen psychopharmacological treatment was significantly associated with greater current parental preference for adolescent antidepressant medication. Strength of biological beliefs and counselling preference were significantly positively associated. LimitationsSample was highly educated, predominately female, and majority treatment-utilizing limiting the generalizability of findings. ConclusionsParents' own past medication experiences and degree of biological etiological beliefs appear to be associated with current teen depression treatment preferences. Counselling and exercise were highly preferred across depression severity.

A longitudinal evaluation of free will related cognitions in obsessive–compulsive disorder

BackgroundIndividuals with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) often feel compelled to perform (compulsive) behaviors, thus raising questions regarding their free will beliefs and experiences. In the present study, we investigated if free will related cognitions (free will beliefs or experiences) differed between OCD patients and healthy subjects and whether these cognitions predicted symptom changes after a one-year follow up.MethodsSixty OCD outpatients were assessed for their beliefs in and experiences of free will at baseline and after one year of treatment. A subsample of 18 OCD patients had their beliefs compared to 18 age and gender matched healthy controls. A regression analysis was performed to investigate whether free will cognitions at baseline were able to predict long-term OCD severity scores.ResultsPatients with OCD and healthy controls do not seem to differ in terms of their beliefs in free will (U = 156.0; p = 0.864). Nonetheless, we found significant negative correlation between (i) duration of illness and strength of belief in determinism (ρ = -0.317; p = 0.016), (ii) age and perception of having alternative possibilities (ρ = -0.275; p = 0.038), and (iii) symptoms’ severity and perception of having alternative possibilities (ρ = -0.415; p = 0.001). On the other hand, the experience of being an owner of ones’ actions was positive correlated with the severity of symptoms (ρ = 0.538; p < 0.001) and were able to predict the severity of OCD symptoms at the follow up assessment.ConclusionsOlder individuals or those with a greater severity of symptoms seem to have a perception of decreased free will. In addition, patients with a longer duration of illness tend to have a lower strength of belief in determinism. Finally, the experience of being the owner of the compulsions, along with the baseline severity of symptoms, can be a predictor of a worse outcome in the OCD sample.

The backfire effect after correcting misinformation is strongly associated with reliability.

The backfire effect is when a correction increases belief in the very misconception it is attempting to correct, and it is often used as a reason not to correct misinformation. The current study aimed to test whether correcting misinformation increases belief more than a no-correction control. Furthermore, we aimed to examine whether item-level differences in backfire rates were associated with test-retest reliability or theoretically meaningful factors. These factors included worldview-related attributes, including perceived importance and strength of precorrection belief, and familiarity-related attributes, including perceived novelty and the illusory truth effect. In 2 nearly identical experiments, we conducted a longitudinal pre/post design with N = 388 and 532 participants. Participants rated 21 misinformation items and were assigned to a correction condition or test-retest control. We found that no items backfired more in the correction condition compared to test-retest control or initial belief ratings. Item backfire rates were strongly negatively correlated with item reliability (ρ = -.61/-.73) and did not correlate with worldview-related attributes. Familiarity-related attributes were significantly correlated with backfire rate, though they did not consistently account for unique variance beyond reliability. While there have been previous papers highlighting the nonreplicable nature of backfire effects, the current findings provide a potential mechanism for this poor replicability. It is crucial for future research into backfire effects to use reliable measures, report the reliability of their measures, and take reliability into account in analyses. Furthermore, fact-checkers and communicators should not avoid giving corrective information due to backfire concerns. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

What is the believability of evidence that is read or heard by physical therapists?

BackgroundPhysical therapists obtain information from a variety of sources. The sources may influence their believability and use in clinical practice. ObjectivesIn this hypothesis-based study, we queried physical therapists (PTs) on the believability of evidence across six musculoskeletal treatment domains and analyzed variables that predicted the strength of beliefs. MethodsThis international survey included six different language portals and used a snowball dispensation strategy. PTs who were credentialed, licensed, or who practiced in the field, were queried on the believability of six treatment domains (i.e., exercise, manual therapy, psychologically-informed practice, sports/occupational performance, thermal/electrical agents, and pain science/patient education) and potential predictors of believability (i.e., social media use, years of practice, time and access to literature, specialization, confidence in reviewing literature and attributions of the researcher). ResultsIn total, 1098 PTs from 36 countries completed the survey. PTs had strong beliefs in what they read or hear about exercise, sports/occupational performance, pain science/patient education, and psychologically-informed interventions. There was only moderate believability regarding manual therapy treatment and weak believability associated with thermal/electrical agents. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that the most robust predictor to outcome relationships included time and access to literature and believability of pain science/patient education, years of clinical practice and believability of psychologically informed practice, and believability of thermal/electrical agents. ConclusionAn important takeaway from this study is that believability was influenced by several factors (primarily by years of practice, attributions of the researcher, and time and access to literature) and appeared to vary across treatment domains.

Two Concepts of Belief Strength: Epistemic Confidence and Identity Centrality.

Two Concepts of Belief Strength: Epistemic Confidence and Identity Centrality.

Equal Treatment and the Inelasticity of Tax Policy to Rising Inequality

We argue that tax policy typically does not respond to inequality because many voters hold equal treatment fairness beliefs for which the expectation is that, just as all have one vote, the state should treat citizens equally on other dimensions of policy. In the tax domain, this means all should pay the same rate. We propose a new survey instrument to measure equal treatment beliefs and implement it in surveys in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. We document in all three countries a robust negative partial correlation between the strength of individual equal treatment beliefs and preferences for higher taxes on the rich. We also present results from a survey experiment in the United States that exposes respondents to a violation of equal treatment beliefs—voting weighted by educational attainment. Exposure to this treatment both increases the strength of equal treatment beliefs and decreases support for progressive taxation.

Strength of Belief Guides Information Foraging

Theories of how people value and search for information share the assumption that beliefs give rise to the perceived value of information. However, few studies have directly addressed the pre-search processes that influence information-foraging behavior. This experiment examined the influence of pre-search belief updating on the perceived value of information sources. A sample of college students completed a hypothesis-testing, medical-diagnosis task. The experiment used medical tests with equal objective informative value before unveiling a presenting symptom intended to alter the strength of belief in different disease hypotheses. The observed patterns of test selection suggest that changes in beliefs about disease hypotheses result in systematic and predictable changes in test preference—a notion we refer to as the principle of hypothesis-guided search. We also present a simulation of how pre-search processes (e.g., hypothesis generation and working memory capacity) and task variables (e.g., time pressure) influence subsequent information search.

Shifting Beliefs in Computer Science: Change in CS Student Mindsets

Two studies investigated change in computer science (CS) students’ implicit intelligence beliefs. Across both studies, we found that the strength of incremental and entity beliefs changed across time. In Study 1, we found that incremental beliefs decreased and entity beliefs increased across the semester. Change in implicit intelligence beliefs was similar for students taking introductory and upper-division courses. In Study 2, growth curve analysis revealed a small linear change in incremental beliefs across time but no change in entity beliefs—these trends were similar for students enrolled in introductory and upper-division CS courses. Across both studies, change in implicit intelligence beliefs was not associated with academic achievement in CS. Findings provide preliminary evidence that shifts in implicit intelligence beliefs occur as students progress through the CS curriculum. Finally, findings support that mindset interventions may be more effective if delivered at the beginning of the semester before shifts in beliefs occur.

I did my bit! The impact of electric vehicle adoption on compensatory beliefs and norms in Norway

The conception that undertaking a certain pro-environmental behaviour may encourage people to adopt other pro-environmental behaviours is appealing, but the evidence is inconsistent. Based on the literature, we propose that the relative strength of relevant personal norms and compensatory beliefs following an initial pro-environmental behaviour are decisive for whether people are more, less, or equally likely to perform other pro-environmental behaviours. Using survey data (N = 217) collected in Norway among ‘to-be owners’ of battery electric vehicles and recent owners of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles regarding their performance of pro-environmental behaviours, we tested a multiple indicators and multiple causes model where intrinsic normative process and compensatory beliefs predict a behavioural score obtained by a Rasch model. The analysis showed that the personal norm was the strongest predictor of pro-environmental behaviours, while compensatory beliefs exert a significant negative influence on both personal norm and behaviours. Further, a significant difference in compensatory beliefs was found between ‘to-be owners’ of battery electric vehicles and recent owners of plug-in hybrid vehicles. Some background variables included in the model as covariates were also found to influence certain constructs in the model. Implications for theory and policy and limitations of the study are discussed.

Spiritual over physical formidability determines willingness to fight and sacrifice through loyalty in cross-cultural populations

Across 11 studies involving six countries from four continents (n = 3,285), we extend insights from field investigations in conflict zones to offline and online surveys to show that personal spiritual formidability-the conviction and immaterial resources (values, strengths of beliefs, character) of a person to fight-is positively associated with the will to fight and sacrifice for others. The physical formidability of groups in conflict has long been promoted as the primary factor in human decisions to fight or flee in times of conflict. Here, studies in Spain, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, and Morocco reveal that personal spiritual formidability, a construct distinct from religiosity, is more strongly associated with the willingness to fight and make costly self-sacrifices for the group than physical formidability. A follow-on study among cadets of the US Air Force Academy further indicates that this effect is mediated by a stronger loyalty to the group, a finding replicated in a separate study with a European sample. The results demonstrate that personal spiritual formidability is a primary determinant of the will to fight across cultures, and this individual-level factor, propelled by loyal bonds made with others, disposes citizens and combatants to fight at great personal risk.

The Relationship between Self-Efficiency and Mathematical Knowledge of 3-D Shapes of Fifth Grade of Elementary School

This study aims to determine the relationship between self-efficacy and mathematical knowledge of 3-D shapes of fifth graders of elementary school. Participants in this study were 76 fifth grade students from a public school in Duri region, Indonesia. The method used in this research is the correlation and regression study. Instruments in this study are non-test and test. The non-test instrument is in the form of a questionnaire, and the test instrument is in the form of questions regarding the 3-D shapes. The indicators of self-efficacy consist of magnitude (level of task difficulty), strength (strength of belief) and generality, while the indicators of mathematical knowledge of 3-D shapes are properties, area, and volume of cubes and rectangular prism. The data analysis technique was carried out by presenting data, normality test, linearity test, linear regression test, and hypothesis testing using Pearson's product moment correlation. The results show that there is a significant positive relationship between students’ self-efficacy and mathematical knowledge of 3-D shapes.

Respect, interaction, immediacy and the role community plays in registering an organ donation decision

BackgroundRegistering a donation decision is fundamental to increasing the number of people who donate the organs and tissues essential for transplantation, but the number of registered organ donors is insufficient to meet this demand. Most people in Australia support organ donation, but only a third have registered their decision on the Australian Organ Donor Register (AODR). We addressed this paradox by investigating how feelings of community, engendered through an ethic of hospitality and care and a non-proselytizing dialogue about organ donation, facilitated the decision to register.MethodsAn Immediate Registration Opportunity was set up in a large public hospital in NSW, Australia. The public was approached and invited to engage in an open, respectful dialogic interaction that met people where their beliefs were and allowed their concerns and fears about donation to be discussed. This included a survey that measured positive and negative beliefs about organ donation, mood, atmosphere, and feelings of community coupled with an on-the-spot opportunity to register their donation decision.ResultsOver four days, we interacted with 357 participants; 75.5% (210) of eligible-to-register participants registered on the AODR. Generalized Structural Equation Modelling highlighted that as connection to community increased, so did the salience of positive beliefs about organ donation. Positive beliefs, in turn, were negatively correlated with negative beliefs about donation and, as the strength of negative beliefs decreased, the probability of registration on the AODR increased. Participants who registered on the AODR reported stronger connection to the broader community than participants who did not register.ConclusionA respectful non-judgmental interaction that allows beliefs and concerns about organ donation to be discussed, coupled with an immediate opportunity to register, encouraged registration. Within this framework, feelings of belonging to a community were a key determinant that enabled many to make the decision to register.

Relations Among Locus of Control, Religiosity, and Resiliency in Collegiate Football Players.

Resiliency in athletes is related to effective coping strategies. Expectedly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, this attribute was highlighted in collegiate football players. To date, the relations among locus of control (LOC), strength of religious beliefs (i.e., religiosity), and resiliency in collegiate football players have not been explored in the literature. Exploring the relation of LOC and religious beliefs to resiliency may shed light on avenues to foster resiliency in football players, which in turn can determine players’ behaviors, performance, and actions during adverse times. The purpose of this study was to gain a more in-depth understanding of the relations among LOC, religiosity, and resiliency in NCAA Division II football players at a public university located in the southwestern United States. A structured online survey containing the Rotter’s Locus of Control Scale (Rotter in Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1–28, 1966), the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (Plante & Boccaccini in Pastoral Psychology, 45(6), 429–437, 1997), and the Conner Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor & Davidson in Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82, 2003) was completed by 91 Division II football players. Statistically significant correlations were found between LOC and resiliency (r = −.42) as well as religiosity and resiliency (r = .26). Regression analysis indicated, on average, that football players with greater internal LOC and higher strength of religious beliefs had a higher level of resiliency than players with higher external LOC and lower strength of religious beliefs.

ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИЕ ЦЕННОСТИ СТУДЕНЧЕСКОЙ МОЛОДЕЖИ САРАТОВСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ: ПРОБЛЕМА СОУЧАСТИЯ И ДОВЕРИЯ

The purpose of the article is to structure the practice of studying socio-political values, the level and characteristics of youth trust in political institutions and key actors during a difficult socio-economic situation. Based on empirical data of a regional study conducted by the authors of the article during 2021-2022 among university students in Saratov, the problem of the relationship of trust in political institutions with the desire and possibility of influencing socio-political processes is considered. Certain characteristics of the influence of the socio-political situation on the representatives of the younger generation, the degree of strength of beliefs and readiness of young people for real active political actions are determined. As a result, the authors draw conclusions that young people have a willingness to fight for their rights in various ways, including going to court (68%) and authorities (48%). The authors also note that young people consider the low level of trust on the part of older generations towards young people to be a problem of our society.

Sports Fans and Magical Thinking: How Supernatural Thinking Connects Fans to Teams

Magical thinking describes beliefs and reasoning processes that defy generally accepted principles of logic and causality. Researchers have identified a link between strength of identification with a favorite sports team and superstition, an expression of magical thinking. Research on fans of fictional narratives has suggested magical thinking more broadly may play a role in being a fan. The authors posed the question, what is the link between sports fanship and two specific types of magical thinking: magical ideation and sympathetic magic? In a survey of 214 adults, relationships between strength of sports fanship and magical ideation, sympathetic magic in a sports context, and sympathetic magic generally were explored. Belief in sympathetic magic with regard to sports figures was found to be prominent among sports fans. In addition, a positive relationship was observed between strength of sports fanship and strength of belief in both sympathetic magic generally and magical ideation. Implications are discussed in terms of recruitment of and marketing to potential and existing fans.

Australian Health Professionals’ Attitudes toward Voluntary Assisted Dying: A Cross-Sectional Survey

Voluntary assisted dying (VAD) is when a terminally ill person with decision-making capacity consensually ends their life with assistance from an authorised professional. Many countries have legalised VAD, and health professionals’ roles within VAD frameworks are varied. Health professionals must be well informed of their legal obligations to ensure they practice within the legal boundaries, and those professionals with objections toward VAD should ensure that their eligible patients have equitable access. Given the current landscape of VAD, it is important to understand different health professionals’ attitudes toward VAD and what may underpin these attitudes. We explored (a) Australian health professionals’ attitudes toward VAD; (b) the psychological components that underpin those attitudes; (c) health professionals’ level of knowledge about VAD; (d) health professionals’ most common beliefs, emotions, and experiences related to VAD. A cross-sectional correlational survey design was used. A total of 182 Australian health professionals participated in the online survey based on a tripartite model of attitudes. We conducted a binomial logistic regression through a Generalised Linear Mixed Model and found polarised attitudes toward VAD between health professionals. Attitudes were accounted for by beliefs, emotions, education, and strength of religious beliefs. Knowledge of VAD was low, but not associated with overall attitude in our model. We highlight the importance of reflexive practice to help health professionals identify their values and feelings related to VAD, and to understand how these may affect their clinical practice. Low knowledge of VAD suggests that legislative and procedural training should be mandatory.

Editorial Introduction: Policy entrepreneurs, science and learning, collaboration, and more

Editorial Introduction: Policy entrepreneurs, science and learning, collaboration, and more