Strength Athletes Research Articles

Gendered perspectives on women’s anabolic–androgenic steroid (AAS) usage practices

BackgroundThe masculinizing effects from anabolic–androgenic steroid (AAS) appear to be different between men and women, leading to calls for more gender-specific information regarding women and AAS use. This study sought to gather perspectives from both men and women on the unique challenges surrounding women’s use of AAS, irrespective of their personal use. Secondly, the study interrogated how women’s AAS practices differ from those of men specifically.MethodsThe data presented in this paper come from a subsample of participants who participated in a larger study investigating women and performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) use in Australia. Participants were included in the current analysis if they were: (i) males or females who competed with or coached female strength athletes using AAS and (ii) female and male strength athletes who used AAS. The final sample comprised 21 participants of which there was a proportion of males (n = 7) and females (n = 7) using AAS.ResultsWomen’s choices in AAS selection were predominantly around oral compounds (e.g. Oxandrolone) as well as other PIEDs (e.g. Clenbuterol). Some women report the use of injectable AAS represents a change in the profile of the typical female user as it reportedly comes alongside drastic physical and psychological changes.ConclusionsThe unique challenges facing women who use AAS are largely isolation and stigma, with little evidence-based practice or education being available to them online or through peer-groups. Future work may consider piloting harm reduction strategies that may be co-designed with this group.

Increased mitochondrial surface area and cristae density in the skeletal muscle of strength athletes.

Mitochondria are the cellular organelles responsible for resynthesising the majority of ATP. In skeletal muscle, there is an increased ATP turnover during resistance exercise to sustain the energetic demands of muscle contraction. Despite this, little is known regarding the mitochondrial characteristics of chronically strength-trained individuals and any potential pathways regulating the strength-specific mitochondrial remodelling. Here, we investigated the mitochondrial structural characteristics in skeletal muscle of strength athletes and age-matched untrained controls. The mitochondrial pool in strength athletes was characterised by increased mitochondrial cristae density, decreased mitochondrial size, and increased surface-to-volume ratio, despite similar mitochondrial volume density. We also provide a fibre-type and compartment-specific assessment of mitochondria morphology in human skeletal muscle, which reveals across groups a compartment-specific influence on mitochondrial morphology that is largely independent of fibre type. Furthermore, we show that resistance exercise leads to signs of mild mitochondrial stress, without an increase in the number of damaged mitochondria. Using publicly available transcriptomic data we show that acute resistance exercise increases the expression of markers of mitochondrial biogenesis, fission and mitochondrial unfolded protein responses (UPRmt ). Further, we observed an enrichment of the UPRmt in the basal transcriptome of strength-trained individuals. Together, these findings show that strength athletes possess a unique mitochondrial remodelling, which minimises the space required for mitochondria. We propose that the concurrent activation of markers of mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial remodelling pathways (fission and UPRmt ) with resistance exercise may be partially responsible for the observed mitochondrial phenotype of strength athletes. KEY POINTS: Untrained individuals and strength athletes possess comparable skeletal muscle mitochondrial volume density. In contrast, strength athletes' mitochondria are characterised by increased cristae density, decreased size and increased surface-to-volume ratio. Type I fibres have an increased number of mitochondrial profiles with minor differences in the mitochondrial morphological characteristics compared with type II fibres. The mitochondrial morphology is distinct across the subcellular compartments in both groups, with subsarcolemmal mitochondria being bigger in size when compared with intermyofibrillar. Acute resistance exercise leads to signs of mild morphological mitochondrial stress accompanied by increased gene expression of markers of mitochondrial biogenesis, fission and mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt ).

Prevalence and Normalization of Stress Urinary Incontinence in Female Strength Athletes.

Mahoney, K, Heidel, RE, and Olewinski, L. Prevalence and normalization of stress urinary incontinence in female strength athletes. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1877-1881, 2023-Strength training is increasing in popularity in women but is also a potential risk factor for stress urinary incontinence (SUI). There is potential for normalization of SUI in sports with high rates of SUI. Pelvic floor physical therapy is an effective treatment for SUI in both athletes and nonathletes, but female strength athletes may not be aware of this option. Our study sought to assess prevalence, normalization, rates of treatment, and preferred sources of information about SUI in female strength athletes. A novel cross-sectional survey was distributed online through social media groups dedicated to female strength athletes with 425 women responding within 4 days. Statistical significance of results was assumed at a 2-sided alpha value of 0.05. 43.5% of athletes experienced incontinence with daily tasks, 59.1% experienced incontinence with normal strength training, and 50.2% experienced incontinence during competition. Of the athletes who experienced incontinence, 61.4% did not have incontinence before starting their sport and only 9.4% had ever sought treatment. 67.9% of all athletes surveyed believed that urinary incontinence was a normal part of their sport. Our findings indicate that SUI is common in female strength athletes and may be a consequence of the sport itself. Normalization of SUI is common, and few athletes seek treatment.

The Relationship between Arm Muscle Strength and Tosser Volleyball Athletes at State Senior High School 13 Muko-Muko

This study aims to scientifically determine the relationship between arm muscle strength and passing skills in volleyball games. The formulation of the problem in this study is how big is the relationship between arm muscle strength and passing skills in the volleyball game of SMA Negeri 13 Muko-Muko? This research was conducted at the Volleyball Club of SMA Negeri 13 Muko-Muko. The research method used is the correlation method with product moment statistics, this research is objective or as it is with a sample of 30 athletes assisted by the Volleyball Club at SMA Negeri 13 Muko-Muko taken by total sampling technique. The results of the data Based on the results of research conducted at the Volleyball Club at SMA Negeri 13 Muko-Muko using the data normality test, homogeneity test, hypothesis test, it can be concluded as follows: 1) Test results and measurements of arm muscle strength through the push up test on skills passing in volleyball games is normally distributed, 2) Based on the results of tests that have been carried out that arm muscle strength has a significant relationship to passing skills in volleyball games.

Human Arm Workout Classification by Arm Sleeve Device Based on Machine Learning Algorithms.

Wearables have been applied in the field of fitness in recent years to monitor human muscles by recording electromyographic (EMG) signals. Understanding muscle activation during exercise routines allows strength athletes to achieve the best results. Hydrogels, which are widely used as wet electrodes in the fitness field, are not an option for wearable devices due to their characteristics of being disposable and skin-adhesion. Therefore, a lot of research has been conducted on the development of dry electrodes that can replace hydrogels. In this study, to make it wearable, neoprene was impregnated with high-purity SWCNTs to develop a dry electrode with less noise than hydrogel. Due to the impact of COVID-19, the demand for workouts to improve muscle strength, such as home gyms and personal trainers (PT), has increased. Although there are many studies related to aerobic exercise, there is a lack of wearable devices that can assist in improving muscle strength. This pilot study proposed the development of a wearable device in the form of an arm sleeve that can monitor muscle activity by recording EMG signals of the arm using nine textile-based sensors. In addition, some machine learning models were used to classify three arm target movements such as wrist curl, biceps curl, and dumbbell kickback from the EMG signals recorded by fiber-based sensors. The results obtained show that the EMG signal recorded by the proposed electrode contains less noise compared to that collected by the wet electrode. This was also evidenced by the high accuracy of the classification model used to classify the three arms workouts. This work classification device is an essential step towards wearable devices that can replace next-generation PT.

Commercial Smart Watches and Heart Rate Monitors: A Concurrent Validity Analysis.

Montalvo, S, Martinez, A, Arias, S, Lozano, A, Gonzalez, MP, Dietze-Hermosa, MS, Boyea, BL, and Dorgo, S. Smartwatches and commercial heart rate monitors: a concurrent validity analysis. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1802-1808, 2023-The purpose of this study was to explore the concurrent validity of 2 commercial smartwatches (Apple Watch Series 6 and 7) against a clinical criterion device (12-lead electrocardiogram [ECG]) and a field criterion device (Polar H-10) during exercise. Twenty-four male collegiate football players and 20 recreationally active young adults (10 men and 10 women) were recruited and participated in a treadmill-based exercise session. The testing protocol included 3 minutes of standing still (resting), then walking at low intensity, jogging at a moderate intensity, running at a high intensity, and postexercise recovery. The intraclass correlation (ICC 2,k ), and Bland-Altman plot analyses showed a good validity of the Apple Watch Series 6 and Series 7 with increased error (bias) as jogging and running speed increased in the football and recreational athletes. The Apple Watch Series 6 and 7 are highly valid smartwatches at rest and different exercise intensities, with validity decreasing with increased running speed. Strength and conditioning professionals and athletes can confidently use the Apple Watch Series 6 and 7 when tracking heart rate; however, caution must be taken when running at moderate or higher speeds. The Polar H-10 can surrogate a clinical ECG for practical applications.

Polysubstance use practices among women using anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS)

BackgroundResearch with men who use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) shows typologies exist where some younger and less risk-averse users engage in polysubstance use. Little research has investigated polysubstance use among women who use AAS. MethodThis study explored patterns of AAS and other illicit substance use among a sample of female AAS users involved in strength sports (e.g., bodybuilding) from Australia (n=7). The research also engaged in interviews with male AAS users who came into frequent contact with women using AAS either by coaching them or as peers (n=7). Data were analysed within a constructivist framework using thematic analysis. ResultsThe data suggests belonging to a female strength athlete identity may have pseudo-protective elements which results in reducing licit substance use, however, illicit substance use does not run counter to the culture and may be supported by it. DiscussionWomen who use AAS identified underlying factors, related to significant previous events in their lives, contributing to their polysubstance use. The male participants expressed similar views regarding underlying factors which contributed to women's use of other substances for recreational purposes. Further investigations are warranted to explore, more fully, the psychosocial factors which contribute to use of multiple illicit substances among women who use AAS and whether typologies exist.

Repeated measurements of Adaptive Force: Maximal holding capacity differs from other maximal strength parameters and preliminary characteristics for non-professional strength vs. endurance athletes.

The Adaptive Force (AF) reflects the neuromuscular capacity to adapt to external loads during holding muscle actions and is similar to motions in real life and sports. The maximal isometric AF (AFisomax) was considered to be the most relevant parameter and was assumed to have major importance regarding injury mechanisms and the development of musculoskeletal pain. The aim of this study was to investigate the behavior of different torque parameters over the course of 30 repeated maximal AF trials. In addition, maximal holding vs. maximal pushing isometric muscle actions were compared. A side consideration was the behavior of torques in the course of repeated AF actions when comparing strength and endurance athletes. The elbow flexors of n = 12 males (six strength/six endurance athletes, non-professionals) were measured 30 times (120s rest) using a pneumatic device. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) was measured pre and post. MVIC, AFisomax, and AFmax (maximal torque of one AF measurement) were evaluated regarding different considerations and statistical tests. AFmax and AFisomax declined in the course of 30 trials [slope regression (mean ± standard deviation): AFmax = -0.323 ± 0.263; AFisomax = -0.45 ± 0.45]. The decline from start to end amounted to -12.8% ± 8.3% (p < 0.001) for AFmax and -25.41% ± 26.40% (p < 0.001) for AFisomax. AF parameters declined more in strength vs. endurance athletes. Thereby, strength athletes showed a rather stable decline for AFmax and a plateau formation for AFisomax after 15 trials. In contrast, endurance athletes reduced their AFmax, especially after the first five trials, and remained on a rather similar level for AFisomax. The maximum of AFisomax of all 30 trials amounted 67.67% ± 13.60% of MVIC (p < 0.001, n = 12), supporting the hypothesis of two types of isometric muscle action (holding vs. pushing). The findings provided the first data on the behavior of torque parameters after repeated isometric-eccentric actions and revealed further insights into neuromuscular control strategies. Additionally, they highlight the importance of investigating AF parameters in athletes based on the different behaviors compared to MVIC. This is assumed to be especially relevant regarding injury mechanisms.

Supplementation with Nitric Oxide Precursors for Strength Performance: A Review of the Current Literature.

Nitric-oxide-stimulating dietary supplements are widely available and marketed to strength athletes and weightlifters seeking to increase muscle performance and augment training adaptations. These supplements contain ingredients classified as nitric oxide (NO) precursors (i.e., "NO boosters"). Endogenous NO is generated via a nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-dependent pathway and a NOS-independent pathway that rely on precursors including L-arginine and nitrates, with L-citrulline serving as an effective precursor of L-arginine. Nitric oxide plays a critical role in endothelial function, promoting relaxation of vascular smooth muscle and subsequent dilation which may favorably impact blood flow and augment mechanisms contributing to skeletal muscle performance, hypertrophy, and strength adaptations. The aim of this review is to describe the NO production pathways and summarize the current literature on the effects of supplementation with NO precursors for strength and power performance. The information will allow for an informed decision when considering the use of L-arginine, L-citrulline, and nitrates to improve muscular function by increasing NO bioavailability.

Stroboscopy while Lifting Weights: A New Assessment Technique for Observing the Larynx in Strength Athletes while Lifting Weights (with and without Valsalva maneuver)

Lifting weights is a popular exercise method for improving the physical characteristics underlying performance in a wide range of sports. In order to perform these lifts safely and efficiently, strength athletes use purposeful holding of breath, strong exhalation against closed vocal cords. These are commonly known as Valsalva Maneuvers (VM) or hard glottis closures to increase core stability and reduce some of the load on the spine, and to facilitate lifting by increasing glottis closure and subsequently increasing intra-thoracic and intra-abdominal pressure. This function may expose athletes to an increased risk of laryngeal irritation or injury due to excessive pressure on the vocal cords during VM performance. Despite extensive weight training exercises in sports, its effects on vocal cords and overall laryngeal health have not yet been systematically studied. This brief methodological report describes how to safely use sports stroboscopy in strength training with weightlifting. This technique was safe and allowed to receive high quality and stable images of the larynx with minimal impact on weightlifting.

Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies CDKN1A as a Novel Locus Associated with Muscle Fiber Composition.

Muscle fiber composition is associated with physical performance, with endurance athletes having a high proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers compared to power athletes. Approximately 45% of muscle fiber composition is heritable, however, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) underlying inter-individual differences in muscle fiber types remain largely unknown. Based on three whole genome SNP datasets, we have shown that the rs236448 A allele located near the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (CDKN1A) gene was associated with an increased proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers in Russian (n = 151; p = 0.039), Finnish (n = 287; p = 0.03), and Japanese (n = 207; p = 0.008) cohorts (meta-analysis: p = 7.9 × 10−5. Furthermore, the frequency of the rs236448 A allele was significantly higher in Russian (p = 0.045) and Japanese (p = 0.038) elite endurance athletes compared to ethnically matched power athletes. On the contrary, the C allele was associated with a greater proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers and a predisposition to power sports. CDKN1A participates in cell cycle regulation and is suppressed by the miR-208b, which has a prominent role in the activation of the slow myofiber gene program. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that the rs236448 C allele was associated with increased CDKN1A expression in whole blood (p = 8.5 × 10−15) and with greater appendicular lean mass (p = 1.2 × 10−5), whereas the A allele was associated with longer durations of exercise (p = 0.044) reported amongst the UK Biobank cohort. Furthermore, the expression of CDKN1A increased in response to strength (p < 0.0001) or sprint (p = 0.00035) training. Accordingly, we found that CDKN1A expression is significantly (p = 0.002) higher in the m. vastus lateralis of strength athletes compared to endurance athletes and is positively correlated with the percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers (p = 0.018). In conclusion, our data suggest that the CDKN1A rs236448 SNP may be implicated in the determination of muscle fiber composition and may affect athletic performance.

Strength versus endurance trained master athletes: Contrasting neurophysiological adaptations

Neural factors play a critical role in the age-related decline in maximal strength and rate of force development (RFD). However, it is uncertain how the age-related attenuation in neuromuscular function may be mitigated in strength or endurance trained master athletes. In this study we applied evoked spinal motoneuron recordings to examine descending motor drive, i.e., efferent drive from supraspinal and spinal centres during maximal voluntary contraction (MVC; V-wave) and H-reflex excitability measured at 10 % MVC in older (>65 yrs) and younger (<35 yrs) strength athletes (n = 21), endurance athletes (n = 17) and untrained control participants (n = 30). Both strength (b = 0.09 [0.01–0.18], p = 0.038) and endurance training (b = 0.14 [0.04–0.23], p = 0.006) were associated with a high V-wave amplitude. This was likely explained by an elevated H-reflex excitability (b = 0.23 [0.11–0.35], p < 0.001) in endurance trained participants, which failed to be seen in strength trained participants. These contrasting neurophysiological properties were accompanied by different physiological traits; strength training was associated with high maximal strength (b = 107.5 [84.6 to 130.4] kg, p < 0.001) and RFD (b = 3171 [2248 to 4094] N‧s−1, p < 0.001), whereas endurance training was associated with elevated maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max; b = 13.6 [8.0–19.2] ml‧kg−1‧min−1, p < 0.001). This pattern was apparent irrespective of age, although all traits were negatively associated with advanced age (p < 0.05). In conclusion, strength trained individuals demonstrate higher descending motor drive (elevated V-wave responses), compared to age-matched untrained individuals. Endurance trained individuals also showed elevated V-wave responses, uniquely accompanied by enhanced α-motoneuron excitability and/or reduced pre/postsynaptic inhibition (elevated H-reflex responses). Since a high descending motor drive is a key component of strong muscle contractions, strength training should be emphasized to sustain the ability to carry out force-dependent tasks at older age.

Dead Bodybuilders Speaking from the Heart: An Analysis of Autopsy Reports of Bodybuilders That Died Prematurely.

This study analyzed publicly available autopsy reports of male bodybuilders under the age of 50 who reportedly died from cardiovascular-related events. A general Google search with the terms "dead bodybuilders" was performed on 10 February 2022. Six reports were available for review and analysis. Bodybuilders had the following means: age (±SD) = 36 ± 7.1 years; height 1.82 ± 0.02 m; weight = 103.8 ± 5.3 kg; weight of heart = 575 ± 134.4 g; and left ventricular myocardium thickness (n = 3) = 16.3 ± 3.5 mm. The bodybuilders analyzed had a mean heart weight that is 73.7% heavier than the reference man (575 g vs. 332 g). Similarly, 100% of the autopsies reported left ventricular myocardium thickness of 16.3 ± 3.5 mm; this is 125% thicker than normative data for men. While abuse of AASs for prolonged periods of time may contribute to some of the cardiac abnormalities present in these bodybuilders, it should be noted that cardiac hypertrophy, including left ventricular hypertrophy, has also been reported in drug-free strength athletes. Each autopsy report included cardiovascular abnormalities within the cause of death. Association does not mean causation, but nonetheless bodybuilders should be aware of potential contributing cardiovascular risks with AAS abuse.

The Relationship Between Partial and Full Range of Motion Deadlift 1-Repetition Maximum: A Technical Note.

Gillingham, B, Bishop, A, Higa, GK, Adams, KJ, and DeBeliso, M. The relationship between partial and full range of motion deadlift 1-repetition maximum: a technical note. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 909-914, 2023-The full range of motion (FROM) or partial range of motion (PROM) deadlift (DL) are often included in resistance training (RT) programs and are performed by strength athletes in competition. This study examined the relationship between the FROM and PROM 1-repetition maximum (1RM) DL and if the PROM 1RM DL can be estimated by the FROM 1RM DL. Eighteen National Collegiate Athletic Association wrestlers (20.8 ± 1.2 years, 176.0 ± 5.2 cm, 78.9 ± 10.6 kg) performed a warm-up followed by the assessment of the FROM and PROM 1RM DLs. The FROM DLs were executed with a starting position of the bar resting on the lifting platform. Partial range of motion DLs were executed in a power rack with the bar starting position at ≈2.54 cm above the patella. Regression analysis was employed to estimate PROM 1RM DL based on FROM 1RM DL, body height, and mass. A Pearson's correlation coefficient ( r ) was used to compare the PROM 1RM DL with FROM 1RM DL. A dependent t test was used to compare the PROM 1RM DL and FROM 1RM DL scores (α < 0.05). The PROM 1RM DL scores (226.0 ± 40.6 kg) were significantly greater than the FROM 1RM DL scores (191.7 ± 37.2 kg) ( p < 0.05: effect size = 0.92). The PCC between the PROM and FROM 1RM DL was r = 0.85 ( p < 0.05). The regression coefficient for the FROM 1RM DL was significant ( p < 0.05; R = 0.85, R2 = 0.73). The regression coefficients for body mass and height were not significant ( p > 0.05). The PROM and FROM DL may be interchangeable modalities within an RT program, and the PROM 1RM DL can be accurately predicted by the FROM 1RM DL.

The Association between Total Genotype Score and Athletic Performance in Weightlifters.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between power-oriented genetic polymorphisms and weightlifting status, create a total genotype score (TGS), and validate the association between TGS models and power-oriented athletes. First, 192 weightlifters and 416 controls were studied, and 12 polymorphisms that have previously been associated with strength, power status, and phenotype were genotyped using the TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. We calculated the TGS for the 12 polymorphisms using a PWM (power-oriented whole model) and for 6 of them using a WRM (weightlifting-related model) based on a case-control study. Second, the TGS of the WRM was compared for 177 strength and power athletes and 416 controls. There was no significant difference in the PWM score between weightlifters and the controls. Weightlifters and elite weightlifters had higher WRM scores than the controls. However, the WRM score had no association with weightlifting performance. There was no significant difference in the WRM between power-oriented athletes and the controls. Our study was able to create a TGS model for weightlifters based on case-control results. However, the TGS model could not be applied to other power-oriented athletes.

The Association between the ALDH2 rs671 Polymorphism and Athletic Performance in Japanese Power and Strength Athletes.

The rs671 polymorphism is associated with the enzymatic activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2), which is weakened by the A allele in East Asians. We recently reported the association of this polymorphism with the athletic status in athletic cohorts and the muscle strength of non-athletic cohorts. Therefore, we hypothesized the association of ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism with the performance in power/strength athletes. We aimed to clarify the relationship between the ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism and performance in power/strength athletes. Participants comprising 253 power/strength athletes (167 men and 86 women) and 721 healthy controls (303 men and 418 women) were investigated. The power/strength athletes were divided into classic powerlifting (n = 84) and weightlifting (n = 169). No differences in the genotypes and allele frequencies of the ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism and an association between performance and the ALDH2 rs671 genotype were observed in weightlifters. However, the relative values per body weight of the total record were lower in powerlifters with the GA + AA genotype than those with the GG genotype (7.1 ± 1.2 vs. 7.8 ± 1.0; p = 0.010, partial η2 = 0.08). Our results collectively indicate a role of the ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism in strength performance in powerlifters.

Surgical treatment of distal triceps tendon ruptures

Restoration of the anatomy and the original length of the muscle-tendon unit in triceps tendon ruptures. Acute and chronic triceps tendon ruptures with persisting symptoms and significant strength deficits. Infections and tumors in the surgical area. Prone position. Skin incision over the distal triceps in alateral direction around the olecranon. Mobilization of the tendon and débridement of the olecranon. Drilling of 2 × 2.9 mm suture anchor holes medial and lateral into the footprint of the olecranon. In addition, drilling through the olecranon 12 mm distal to the tip of the olecranon and transosseous introduction of 4sutures. Then the suture anchors (all-suture or titanium anchors) are inserted into the drill holes. Refix the deep and superficial tendons with the anchor threads. Refix the upper tendon portions with the transosseous sutures. In the case of chronic lesions, agraft interposition is necessary. Dorsal 10 ° splint, then change to an orthosis fixed in 20 ° extension and passive mobility 0-30 ° flexion for 6weeks. From the 7th week onwards, load-free, physiotherapeutically controlled increasing mobilization. Starting weight-loading from the 13th week on. Full load after 6months. In all, 34male strength athletes with acute triceps tendon rupture underwent surgery using the hybrid technique described and were prospectively recorded. The MEPS‑G score averaged 94.7points, there were no permanent limitations in mobility, and the postoperative strength ability averaged 94% of the original strength performance ability. The return to sport achieved 100%. The complication rate was 20.6%. Reconstruction of the distal triceps tendon using hybrid technology leads to very good functional results. Half of all patients complained of symptoms even before the rupture, which suggests previous damage to the distal triceps tendon caused by degeneration.

Prevalence of risk for exercise dependence in rock climbers and mountaineers

Background: Research on physical activity has extensively shown that regular exercise produces many physical and psychological benefits. However, excessively practiced physical activities can also have negative effects, both physical and psychological. One of them is the risk of becoming dependent on exercise, similar to substances such as drugs or alcohol. Most studies on exercise dependence have focused on runners and strength athletes. Aim of the study: This study aimed to explore the prevalence of exercise dependence in climbers. Material and methods: A group of 272 climbers (32.3 ± 8.7 years old) participated in the study. They were divided into three groups: sport/rock climbers (59.6%), boulderers (30.2%), and mountaineers (10.3%). Data was collected using the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS). Results: Based on EDS scores, 44 climbers (16.2%) were classified as at-risk for exercise dependence, 183 (67.3%) as nondependent-symptomatic, and 45 (16.5%) as asymptomatic. Competitive and non-competitive climbers significantly differed in tolerance, and boulderers scored significantly higher than rock climbers and mountaineers. Conclusions: Climbers are at risk of developing exercise dependence, especially those who participate in climbing competitions and who are boulderers. However, more research is needed to further characterize this phenomenon in the climbing community.

Lifelong Strength Versus Endurance Training: Differential Adaptations In Efferent Neural Drive And Spinal α-motoneuron Excitability

PURPOSE: Neural factors play a critical role in the age-related decline in maximal strength and rate of force development (RFD). However, it is uncertain how the neural attenuation may be mitigated by strength or endurance training, respectively. METHODS: In this study we applied evoked spinal motoneuron recordings to examine efferent neural drive (V/Msup during maximal voluntary contraction; MVC) and α-motoneuron excitability (Hmax/Mmax at 10% MVC) in a total of 69 older (>65 yrs) and younger (<35 yrs) strength athletes (n = 21), endurance athletes (n = 17) and control subjects (n = 31). RESULTS: Leg press strength (one repetition maximum: 1RM) but not maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), were positively associated with V/Msup (r = 0.60, p < 0.001). Leg press 1RM and RFD were higher (all p < 0.05) in older strength athletes (1RM: 164 ± 18 kg; RFD (0-200 ms); 4262 ± 1022 N·s-1) than endurance athletes (1RM: 132 ± 25 kg; RFD: 3080 ± 669 N·s-1) and older controls (1RM: 109 ± 15 kg; RFD: 2202 ± 915 N·s-1), but lower compared to training-matched young groups (p < 0.05). V̇O2max was positively associated with Hmax/Mmax (r = 0.47, p < 0.001) while no correlation was observed for 1RM. V̇O2max was higher (all p < 0.05) in older endurance athletes (47.6 ± 7.6 ml·kg-1·min-1) than in older strength athletes (30.9 ± 6.0 ml·kg-1·min-1) and older controls (34.2 ± 4.4 ml·kg-1·min-1), but lower than all young groups (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Across the life span the plasticity in skeletal muscle strength and aerobic capacity, respectively, seems to be associated with differential neural factors. Specifically, chronic strength training seems to result in a higher efferent neural drive during maximal muscle contractions (elevated V-wave responses), largely dependent on corticospinal factors, whereas chronic endurance training appears to be related to a high α-motoneuron excitability, at least during low-level muscle contractions. Since high efferent neural drive is a key component for strong muscle contractions with age, strength training should be emphasized for the ability to carry out force-dependent tasks at older age.

An Investigation into the Impact Spinal Manipulation May Have on the Performance of Strength Athletes: A Research Survey

Abstract: The amount of research behind spinal manipulation is growing, however, very little attention has been paid to the possible impacts SM has on athletes – or furthermore strength athletes. The central research question is “What impact does spinal manipulation have on strength athletes?”. The objective of this research question is to guide the exploration and observation of how spinal manipulation impacts the performance of strength athletes. This was achieved via an international research survey. A null and alternative hypothesis was established. Each question was designed to measure how effective SM was on strength performance. There were 5 questions in total that covered the most prominent results in the literature; recovery, technique, R.O.M, pain, strength. Each question required an answer between 1-10, determining how effective the participant felt SM was regarding that specific topic, and each participant’s survey would be submitted out of 50, covering 5 questions worth 1/10 each. 69 participants (n=69; ±0.10 - 10%) enrolled in the research article, 81.2% male, 18.8% female and between the age of 21-55. The null hypothesis was successfully rejected with 95% of the sample population scoring a sample mean value (33.7, 95% CI 31.2 - 36.3) &gt;25 (over 50%), meeting the critical value inclusion criteria of 5% (P = 0.05); concluding it statistically significant with 95% confidence Interval, a 2.6 margin of error and a SD of 10.8. That is a 67% result in favour to SM being effective for strength performance. In conclusion: the data shows that spinal manipulation is an effective treatment to improve overall performance in strength athletes, this includes pain modulation, ROM, technique, strength and recovery improvements.