Street-level Drug Research Articles

The deterrent effects of Australian street-level drug law enforcement on illicit drug offending at outdoor music festivals

BackgroundAustralian and international street-level drug law enforcement deploy many strategies in efforts to prevent or deter illicit drug offending. Limited evidence of deterrence exists. This study assessed the likely impacts of four Australian policing strategies on the incidence and nature of drug use and supply at a common policing target: outdoor music festivals. MethodsA purpose-built national online survey (the Drug Policing Survey) was constructed using five hypothetical experimental vignettes that took into account four policing strategies (High Visibility Policing, Riot Policing, Collaborative Policing, and policing with Drug Detection Dogs) and a counter-factual (no police presence). The survey was administered in late 2015 to 2115 people who regularly attend festivals. Participants were block-randomised to receive two vignettes and asked under each whether they would use, possess, purchase, give or sell illicit drugs. ResultsCompared to ‘no police presence’, any police presence led to a 4.6% point reduction in engagement in overall illicit drug offending: reducing in particular willingness to possess or carry drugs into a festival. However, it had minimal or counterproductive impacts on purchasing and supply. For example, given police presence, purchasing of drugs increased significantly within festival grounds. Offending impacts varied between the four policing strategies: Drug Detection Dogs most reduced drug possession but High Visibility Policing most reduced overall drug offending including supply. Multivariate logistic regression showed police presence was not the most significant predictor of offending decisions at festivals. ConclusionConclusionThe findings suggest that street-level policing may deter some forms of drug offending at music festivals, but that most impacts will be small. Moreover, it may encourage some perverse impacts such as drug consumers opting to buy drugs within festival grounds rather than carry in their own. We use our findings to highlight trade-offs between the goals of public health promotion and crime control in street-level enforcement.

A Critical Examination of Gender Differences in Drug Selling for the Non-Violent Street Level Drug Seller

A Critical Examination of Gender Differences in Drug Selling for the Non-Violent Street Level Drug Seller Yvonne Isom Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/jlcj.v5n2a1

War on Drugs Policing and Police Brutality

Background: War on Drugs policing has failed to reduce domestic street-level drug activity: the cost of drugs remains low and drugs remain widely available. Objectives: In light of growing attention to police brutality in the United States, this paper explores interconnections between specific War on Drugs policing strategies and police-related violence against Black adolescents and adults in the United States. Methods: This paper reviews literature about (1) historical connections between race/ethnicity and policing in the United States; (2) the ways that the War on Drugs eroded specific legal protections originally designed to curtail police powers; and (3) the implications of these erosions for police brutality targeting Black communities. Results: Policing and racism have been mutually constitutive in the United States. Erosions to the 4th Amendment to the Constitution and to the Posse Comitatus Act set the foundations for two War on Drugs policing strategies: stop and frisk and Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams. These strategies have created specific conditions conducive to police brutality targeting Black communities. Conclusions/Importance: War on Drugs policing strategies appear to increase police brutality targeting Black communities, even as they make little progress in reducing street-level drug activity. Several jurisdictions are retreating from the War on Drugs; this retreat should include restoring rights originally protected by the 4th Amendment and Posse Comitatus. While these legal changes occur, police chiefs should discontinue the use of SWAT teams to deal with low-level nonviolent drug offenses and should direct officers to cease engaging in stop and frisk.

Prevalence and correlates of nonmedical prescription opioid use among a cohort of sex workers in Vancouver, Canada

BackgroundThe nonmedical use of prescription opioids (POs) is a major public health concern, causing extensive morbidity and mortality in North America. Canada has the second highest consumption rate of POs globally and data indicate nonmedical PO use (NPOU) is growing among key populations and increasingly available in street-level drug markets. Despite accumulating evidence documenting the rise of NPOU, few studies have systematically examined NPOU in Canada among key vulnerable populations, such as sex workers. This study prospectively evaluated the prevalence and correlates of NPOU within a Vancouver cohort of sex workers over three-years follow-up. MethodsData were drawn from an open prospective cohort, AESHA (An Evaluation of Sex Workers Health Access) in Metro Vancouver, Canada (2010–2013). Women were recruited through outreach from outdoor street locations and indoor venues. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) were used to examine social and structural correlates of NPOU over 36 months. ResultsOf the 692 sex workers at baseline, close to one-fifth (n=130, 18.8%) reported NPOU (injection or non-injection) in the last six months. In multivariable GEE analyses, factors independently correlated with recent NPOU were: exchanging sex while high (AOR 3.26, 95%CI 2.29–4.64), police harassment/arrest (AOR 1.83, 95%CI 1.43–2.35), intimate partner injects drugs (AOR 1.66, 95%CI 1.11–2.49), and recent physical/sexual intimate partner violence (AOR 1.65, 95%CI 1.21–2.24). ConclusionOur results demonstrate that nearly one-fifth of sex workers in Metro Vancouver report NPOU. Factors independently statistically associated with NPOU included exchanging sex while high, police harassment/arrest, a drug injecting intimate partner and recent physical/sexual intimate partner violence. The high prevalence of NPOU use among sex workers underscores the need for further prevention and management strategies tailored to this key population. The correlates of NPOU uncovered here suggest that structural interventions may be further implemented to ameliorate this growing concern.

The High Point Drug Market Intervention: Examining Impact across Target Areas and Offense Types

The High Point Police Department in North Carolina was the first law enforcement agency to implement a series of “pulling levers” interventions in specific neighborhoods in order to reduce crime problems associated with street-level drug markets. The High Point Drug Market Intervention (DMI) has since received considerable attention among practitioner and researcher audiences given the promise of the strategy seen in prior research. However, no study to date has examined the relative impacts across the different target neighborhood contexts as well as among crime outcomes within High Point. A series of interrupted time series models indicates the initial neighborhood (West End) experienced the greatest offense reductions between the preintervention and postintervention period. The second site (Daniel Brooks) showed more modest crime declines, and the latter two sites (Southside and East Central) did not demonstrate significant crime changes. Potential explanations and directions for future studies are discussed in this paper.

Non-Medical Use of Psychotropic Prescription Drugs Among Adolescents in Substance Use Treatment

Little is known about the extent of non-medical use of prescription drugs among European adolescents with substance use disorders. This cross-sectional study examined non-medical use of seven categories of psychotropic prescription drugs (opioid analgesics, ADHD stimulant, sleeping, sedative/anxiolytic, antipsychotic, antidepressant, and anabolic steroid medications) in a clinical sample of Irish adolescents with substance use disorders. Of the 85 adolescents (aged 13–18 years) invited to participate, 65 adolescents (M = 16.3 years, SD = 1.3) took part (response: 74%). Among respondents, 68% reported lifetime non-medical use of any of the prescription drugs; sedative/anxiolytic (62%) and sleeping medications (43%) were more commonly abused. The most frequently reported motives for abuse were “seeking high or buzz” (79%), “having good time” (63%), and “relief from boredom” (56%). Sharing among friends and street-level drug markets were the most readily available sources. Innovative solutions of control measures and intervention are required to address the abuse of prescription drugs.

The Cedar Project: Impacts of policing among young Aboriginal people who use injection and non-injection drugs in British Columbia, Canada

BackgroundPolicing has profound health implications for people who use illicit drugs. Among Aboriginal communities, distrust of police is common, due partly to legacies of colonial policing. In response to the paucity of research among Aboriginal people who use drugs, this paper aims to: (1) Describe the policing experiences of young Aboriginal people who use drugs; (2) Identify policing activities associated with unsafe injection practices; and (3) Elucidate barriers to positive police relations. MethodsThe Cedar Project is a cohort study involving young Aboriginal people in Vancouver and Prince George, British Columbia, who use illicit drugs. This mixed-methods study (N=372) used period prevalence from 2007 to 2010 to describe policing experiences, mixed effects regression models to identify correlates of policing activities, and thematic qualitative analysis to assess attitudes to police relations. ResultsMany participants were stopped by police (73%), experienced physical force by police (28%), had drug equipment confiscated (31%), and changed location of drug use because of police (43%). Participants who reported dealing drugs (40%) were significantly more likely to experience police engagement. Among participants in Prince George, 4% reported to have had non-consensual sex with members of the criminal justice system. Policing activity was significantly associated with syringe sharing, rushed injection, and reused syringe.Due to personal experience, practical concerns, and intergenerational legacies of unfair policing practices, most participants did not want a positive relationship with police (57%). Desire for a positive relationship with police was directly associated with being helped by police, and inversely associated with being stopped by police and experiencing physical force by police. ConclusionPolicing activities may be impacting the well-being of Aboriginal people who use drugs. Due to focused prosecution of street-level drug dealing, some police may favor enforcement over harm reduction. Positive police engagement and less aggressive policing may enhance perceptions of police among young Aboriginal people who use drugs.

Can “disciplined passion” overcome the cynical view? An empirical inquiry of evaluator influence on police crime prevention program outcomes

Investigate the degree and nature of influence that researchers have in police crime prevention programs and whether a high degree of influence is associated with biased reporting of results. Meta-analytic inquiry of experimental and quasi-experimental studies (n = 42), drawn from four Campbell Collaboration systematic reviews of leading police crime prevention strategies: problem-oriented policing, “hot spots” policing, “pulling levers” policing, and street-level drug enforcement. Larger program effects are not associated with studies with higher involvement on the part of the evaluator (e.g., assisting in strategy design, monitoring implementation, overcoming implementation problems). This study does not find support for the cynical view, which holds that researchers have a personal stake in the program or are pressured to report positive results. Importantly, the evaluator’s involvement in the implementation of the program may be a necessary condition of successfully executed police experiments in complex field settings.

The organisation of London's street gangs

This article examines a grossly neglected area of the street gang literature: the nature and extent of gang organisation. Based upon fieldwork with gangs in London, UK, this article illustrates how recreation, crime, and enterprise are not specific gang ‘types’, but rather represent sequential stages in the evolutionary cycle of gangs. This article demonstrates not only how gangs typically begin life as neighbourhood-based peer groups, but also how, in response to external threats and financial commitments, gangs grow to incorporate street-level drug distribution businesses that very much resemble the multi-level marketing structure of direct-selling companies. Gang organisation, in turn, becomes a function of gang business. Gang organisation is conceptualised here on three levels: internal, external, and symbolic. This article examines, respectively, the presence of subgroups, hierarchy and leadership, incentives, rules, responsibilities, and punishments within gangs; how gangs interact with the local and larger community; and how gangs associate with symbolic elements of popular culture in order to convey reputation and achieve intimidation.

Evaluating a Policing Strategy Intended to Disrupt an Illicit Street-Level Drug Market

The authors examined a strategic policing initiative that was implemented in a high crime Nashville, Tennessee neighborhood by utilizing a mixed-methodological evaluation approach in order to provide (a) a descriptive process assessment of program fidelity; (b) an interrupted time-series analysis relying upon generalized linear models; (c) in-depth resident interviews. Results revealed that the initiative corresponded with a statistically significant reduction in drug and narcotics incidents as well as perceived changes in neighborhood disorder within the target community. There was less-clear evidence, however, of a significant impact on other outcomes examined. The implications that an intensive crime prevention strategy corresponded with a reduction in specific forms of neighborhood crime illustrates the complex considerations that law enforcement officials face when deciding to implement this type of crime prevention initiative.

The Gendered Nature of Drug Acquisition Behavior Within Marijuana and Crack Drug Markets

Previous studies examining how gender structures women’s opportunities to engage in the street-level drug economy have provided insight into the changing nature of illicit drug markets and women’s roles within this illegitimate economy. Using national data from the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program, this study adds to the existing body of research by examining drug market acquisition behaviors and how such drug activity differs by gender. The findings indicate that male and female arrestees use different strategies when obtaining drugs. Specifically, women appear to rely on a more limited array of social contacts than men when acquiring drugs. The results also reveal that the effect of gender on efforts to obtain drugs is not constant across drug types. This study suggests that the strategies used by women when obtaining drugs may very well reflect the gendered culture of street-level drug markets and the influence of personal relationships on women’s involvement in criminal activity.

Policing Australia’s ‘heroin drought’: using an agent-based model to simulate alternative outcomes

Our paper examines how street-level drug markets adapt to a macro-level disruption to the supply of heroin, under three experimental conditions of street-level drug law enforcement: random patrol, hot-spot policing and problem-orientated policing. We utilize an agent-based model to explore the relative impact of abstractions of these three law enforcement strategies after simulating an ‘external shock’ to the supply of heroin to the street-level drug market. We use 3 years of data, which include the period of the ‘heroin drought’ in Melbourne (Australia) that commenced in late 2000 and early 2001, to measure changes in a selected range of crime and harm indicators under the three policing conditions. Our results show that macro-level disruptions to drug supply have a limited impact on street-level market dynamics when there is a ready replacement drug. By contrast, street-level police interventions are shown to vary in their capacity to alter drug market dynamics. Importantly, our laboratory abstraction of problem-orientated policing is shown to be the optimal strategy to disrupt street-level injecting-drug markets, reduce crimes and minimize harm, regardless of the type of drug being supplied to the market.

Risks Surrounding Drug Trade Involvement Among Street-Involved Youth

Background: Street-involved youth have been shown to be involved in the street-level illicit drug trade in a number of jurisdictions, though little is known about risk factors and sequelae of this behavior. The present study was therefore conducted to investigate factors associated with the street-level drug trade involvement among street-based youth. Methods: We used logistic regression to examine factors associated with drug dealing among participants in the At-Risk Youth Study in Vancouver, Canada. We also examined motivations for drug trade involvement and types of drugs sold by participants. Results: Overall, 529 street-involved youth were followed during the study period, of whom 307 (58.0%) reported having been involved in the drug trade in the last six months. In a logistic regression analysis, crack cocaine use (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.28–2.67), homelessness (AOR = 1.58, 95% CI: 1.04–2.40), and having been assaulted by police (AOR = 1.85, 95% CI: 1.14–3.00) were independently associated with drug dealing among cohort participants. Among participants who reported drug dealing, 263 (85.6%) individuals stated that the main reason that they sold drugs was to pay for their personal drug use. Conclusions: In our setting, street-involved youth implicated in the drug trade are characterized by drug-related and sociodemographic vulnerabilities. These individuals also appear to be motivated by drug dependence and report elevated levels of police violence. Our findings have immediate implications for drug strategies targeting street-level drug dealing.

The Geography of Drug Activity and Violence: Analyzing Spatial Relationships of Non-Homogenous Crime Event Types

The pervasiveness of interest regarding the theme of a relationship between street-level drug activity and violence has been reflected throughout criminal justice research, policy, and practice as well as in public opinion. Most research has focused on the connection between the two at the individual level. This study extends previous research by examining the place-based relationship between drugs and violence. To do so, this project employs three spatial statistical approaches—measures of spatial intensity/density, measures of spatial dependence for drugs and violence separately, and a modified spatial dependence approach for non-homogenous populations to explore the relationship between drug activity and violence. The findings indicate that while drugs and violence often exhibit overlapping spatial patterns, important variations exist in the spatial relationship between the two.

Street‐Level Drug Law Enforcement: A Meta‐Analytic Review

The fight against street‐level drug crime cannot be won by spending more resources on traditional, reactive style police work. Rather, partnerships between the police and other “third parties” should be applied, such that police work cooperatively with third parties to analyse underlying problems, target hotspots and establish cooperative partnerships with e.g. housing associations, local businesses, and government regulators.The conclusion of this Campbell Systematic Review is based on a comprehensive search of the evaluation literature in the field. The review compares the results of 14 studies of police intervention aimed at drug‐related crime. All of the studies were carried out in the USA, the majority in the early or mid‐1990s. All the studies measure the effect by comparing an intervention group with a control group.ABSTRACTBackground:An atmosphere of ineffectiveness regarding the ability of police to address crime problems in general and street‐level drug problems in particular prevailed in the 1980s. Law enforcement tactics in the 1980s were typically reactive, unfocused and generally failed to disrupt street‐level drug market activity. Development of focused proactive policing strategies during the 1990s, such as problem‐oriented policing and partnerships with third parties, led to a renewed faith in the capacity of the police to efficaciously deal with street‐level drug problems.Objectives:To utilize meta‐analytic procedures to assess the relative effectiveness of police‐led drug law enforcement interventions. Specifically, we examined the relative effectiveness of a number of policing approaches, including problem‐oriented policing, community‐wide policing, and hotspots policing compared to the standard, reactive mode of drug law enforcement that dominated police practice until the 1990s.Search Strategy:We identified relevant studies using a guided, iterative search process utilizing appropriate keyword searches of major databases from various disciplines. In addition, we hand searched key journals in the law enforcement literature, trawled discipline relevant websites, consulted key researchers, postgraduate students, and criminal justice librarians, and cross‐checked the reference list of each identified study.Selection Criteria:We restricted our meta‐analysis to interventions initiated, managed and/or implemented by the police to reduce or prevent illicit drug use, drug dealing and associated problems at drug dealing places. We investigated the impact of these interventions on a number of outcome variables, including drug outcomes using drug‐related calls for service and reported offenses, as well as reported offenses and calls for service outcomes for non‐drug specific outcomes such as property crime, violent offences, and disorder. The review imposed no time restrictions (i.e. publication year) and we included unpublished literature (i.e. dissertations, reports, etc) and non‐English language studies. Included studies all needed, at a minimum, a pre‐test/post‐test, comparison group design. Our review included quasi‐experimental designs given the lack of methodologically sound evaluations in this area.Data Collection & Analysis:We used meta‐analytic techniques to investigate the effectiveness of various drug law enforcement approaches on the outcome variables of interest. Specifically, we used the odds ratio to assess pre‐test to post‐test intervention effects, using a random effects model. We analysed separately the effect of drug law enforcement on each of the outcomes of interest.Main Results:Our results show that problem‐oriented and community‐wide policing approaches are more effective at reducing drug calls for service and drug incidents than law enforcement approaches that target drug hotspots. We also find that problem‐oriented policing is more effective than community‐wide policing in dealing with both drug‐related and total calls for service. But the simple tactic of geographically focusing law enforcement resources on drug hotspots is a marked improvement over the deployment of “standard” law enforcement tactics (such as preventive patrols) that are geographically unfocused.In regards to non‐drug outcomes, community‐wide policing approaches tend to reduce disorder‐related activity more than law enforcement‐only activities that target drug hotspots. Hotspots approaches aimed at disrupting street‐level drug market have a more desirable impact on person (e.g. street assaults) and property crime (motor vehicle theft) outcomes than problem‐oriented or community‐wide policing approaches.Reviewer's Conclusions:Our results reveal that geographically targeted problem‐oriented policing interventions, involving cooperative partnerships between police and third parties, tend to be more effective at disrupting street‐level drug markets than policing efforts that involve partnerships but are spread across a community. Yet our results suggest that both problem‐oriented policing and community‐wide partnerships are more effective at disrupting street level drug markets than traditional, law enforcement‐only interventions, whether they are focused on hotspots or not. Our results suggest that rather than simply increasing police presence or intervention (e.g. arrests) at drug hotspots, street‐level drug law enforcement should (1) focus on forging productive partnerships with third parties, (2) target drug hotspots rather than spreading intervention efforts across neighborhoods, and (3) make efforts to alter the underlying criminogenic conditions that exist in places with street‐level drug market problems.

Street-level drug law enforcement: A meta-analytical review⋆

Our paper presents the results of a meta-analytical review of street level drug law enforcement. We conducted a series of meta-analyses to compare and contrast the effectiveness of four types of drug law enforcement approaches, including community-wide policing, problem-oriented/partnership approaches that were geographically focused, hotspots policing and standard, unfocused law enforcement efforts. We examined the relative impact of these different crime control tactics on street-level drug problems as well as associated problems such as property crime, disorder and violent crime. The results of the meta-analyses, together with examination of forest plots, reveal that problem-oriented policing and geographically-focused interventions involving cooperative partnerships between police and third parties tend to be more effective at controlling drug problems than community-wide policing efforts that are unfocused and spread out across a community. But geographically focused and community-wide drug law enforcement interventions that leverage partnerships are more effective at dealing with drug problems than traditional, law enforcement-only interventions. Our results suggest that the key to successful drug law enforcement lies in the capacity of the police to forge productive partnerships with third parties rather than simply increasing police presence or intervention (e.g., arrests) at drug hotspots.

Street-Level Drug Market Activity in Sydney's Primary Heroin Markets: Organization, Adulteration Practices, Pricing, Marketing and Violence

This study is a qualitative exploration of two distinctive high-profile street drug markets in Sydney, Australia. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 street-level heroin dealers about their experiences of selling drugs in these areas, market organization, drug adulteration and quality assessment practices, and the extent and impact of violence associated with these markets. Most dealers operated independently, working for themselves or in loosely defined groups of two or three with little or no hierarchy while others acted as “runners,” selling for others for a percentage of sales. A range of “folk” or nonscientific methods were employed for testing the quality of drugs, and adulteration or “cutting” of drugs was rare. Moreover, this research suggests that even during periods of heroin scarcity, increased adulteration is not an inevitable outcome. In contrast to popular perceptions, dealers in both areas cooperated with each other, and little intimidatory rivalry was reported or observed. Indeed, most participants considered violence to be fairly rare, largely avoidable, and not an inevitable consequence of their involvement in the market. Numerous popular drug market and drug dealer stereotypes about the two locations were not supported by the findings.

Analyse spatiale des crimes commis sur la rue à l’intérieur des marchés de drogues

In this paper we utilize data from the Drug Market Analysis Program (DMAP) in Jersey City, New Jersey, to provide some preliminary insight into the spatial relationship between street level drug markets and crime. We begin our paper with a description of how the DMAP information system was used to define drug markets and the characteristics of the markets that were identified. We then turn to an analysis of the incidence of reported crime within drug market boundaries. We find that drug market areas include a disproportionate share of arrests and crime related emergency calls for service in Jersey City. Streets and intersections within the drug markets are also much more likely to evidence reported crime than non-drug market places. We conclude with a discussion of our findings and the implications of our research for further study of the spatial relationships between drug markets and crime.

The risk of drug swallowing at the point of arrest: An analysis of 24 cocaine-related deaths following police care or custody in England and Wales

The increase in cocaine use in young people has been reflected in an increase in the number of deaths in which cocaine is identified post mortem. This increase is evident in relation to police custody deaths. In the current analysis, 43 drug-related deaths in custody are considered with cocaine identified in 24 of the post mortem examinations. The article examines the characteristics of these deaths, with particular attention paid to the method and related reasons for drug consumption. Crucially, these deaths contrast with national drug mortality data as they generally involve cocaine consumed by swallowing at the point of arrest. A total of 18 of 24 cocaine deaths involved oral ingestion with at least 15 of these possible attempts at drug concealment occurring at the point of arrest. There is likely to be a considerable risk of loss of life among street-level drug dealers who swallow to avoid drug detection; the article examines the risks associated with this behaviour and possible preventative strategies.

Drug Dealers, Robbery and Retaliation. Vulnerability, Deterrence and the Contagion of Violence

Because of their illicit status, drug dealers robbed in the course of doing business cannot go to the police. Thus, the deterrent, compensatory and retributive benefits of formal justice are unavailable to them. Informal avenues of redress represent their only means of obtaining justice. This article, based on interviews with 20 recently robbed, active drug dealers in St Louis, Missouri, explores how such victims perceive and respond to the assault. Results indicate that direct retaliation is the preferred response because it serves three important aims: reputation maintenance, loss recovery and vengeance. When dealer/victims are unable or unwilling to retaliate they resort to less satisfactory alternatives such as robbery displacement and the resumption of selling. The implications of these findings for the spread of drug market violence are discussed. One of criminology’s dirty little secrets is that much serious crime, perhaps most, takes place beyond the reach of the criminal law because it is perpetrated against individuals who themselves are involved in lawbreaking. Not only are such individuals reluctant to report being victimized for fear of exposing their own illicit activities, they probably would not be taken seriously even if they did make a complaint. In this sense, people who operate outside the law cannot really be ‘victims’ in the eyes of the criminal justice system. This, in turn, means that the deterrent, compensatory and retributive benefits of formal justice are unavailable to a very large class of potential victims, leaving them especially vulnerable to predators. This open secret within the discipline has important implications for understanding the spread of criminal violence. Without recourse to formal mechanisms of social control, victims who themselves are involved in crime are left to their own devices. If wrongs perpetrated against them are going to be righted, they will be the ones to make this happen. It is difficult to imagine conditions better suited to breed retaliatory motivation. If violence is ‘contagious’, as some have suggested, criminal retaliation must be considered a prime suspect in its transmission (Loftin 1986). Criminologists widely assume that retaliation is an important mechanism for deterring aggression and settling scores among organized criminals (Arlacchi 1987), youth gangs (Decker and Van Winkle 1996; Hagedorn 1988), and street-level drug dealers (Bourgois