Streamwise Pressure Distribution Research Articles

Dynamic separation on an accelerating prolate spheroid

Time-varying flow separation on an accelerating prolate spheroid has been studied at various angles of incidence. Instantaneous pressure and scanning stereoscopic particle image velocimetry were used to shed light on the evolution of cross-flow structures for the Reynolds number ( $Re$ ) range of $1.0\times 10^6\leq Re \leq 1.5\times 10^6$ . The movement of separation lines is examined for various model accelerations to investigate on the interplay between acceleration and flow separation. The results demonstrate that for axial accelerations, the streamwise pressure distribution in the rear part of the prolate spheroid switches from an adverse to a favourable pressure gradient. At the same time, the circumferential adverse pressure gradient present during steady motion vanishes during said accelerations. In contrast, both streamwise and circumferential adverse pressure gradients strengthen when the model is axially decelerated. These dynamic pressure distributions influence the location of the separation line, which in turn moves closer to the model meridian during accelerations while moving outwards during decelerations. The streamwise vorticity distribution and the streamwise circulation both show how the separation-line position impacts the vortex formation. A high-vorticity region near the model surface is established during acceleration. In contrast, a decelerating model leads to transport of high-vorticity fluid into the outer area of the cross-flow separation. We further assess the memory effects following the near-impulsive velocity changes. The cross-flow retains the memory of moving separation lines shortly after the acceleration. However, the separation recovers quickly to a steady state.

Numerical study of the effect of sidewalls on shock train behaviour

Strongly coupled sequences of shock waves, known as shock trains, are present in high-speed propulsion systems, where the presence of sidewalls substantially modifies the boundary layer thickness, skin friction and streamwise pressure distribution. In the present contribution, scale-resolved numerical simulations are performed on supersonic channel (infinite span) and square duct flows to evaluate the effect of sidewall confinement with and without shock trains. Comparable secondary flow vortices are observed in the duct case with and without the presence of the shock train. The absence of a separation region at the leading shock of the duct case results in lower flow deflection compared with the channel case, leading to a reduced shock strength. The principal effect of the sidewalls is to cause a shock train that is approximately twice as long and composed of a larger number of shocks. A modification of previous models, based on a momentum thickness-based blockage parameter, leads to an improved collapse of the channel and duct cases.

Transverse flow-induced vibrations of a sphere in the proximity of a free surface: A numerical study

In this paper, we present a numerical study on the transverse flow-induced vibration (FIV) of an elastically mounted sphere in the vicinity of a free surface at subcritical Reynolds numbers. We assess the interaction dynamics and the vibration characteristics of fully submerged and piercing spheres that are free to vibrate in the transverse direction. We employ the recently developed three-dimensional two-phase flow–structure interaction solver to investigate fully and partially submerged configurations of an elastically mounted sphere. To begin, we examine the vortex-induced vibration (VIV) phenomenon and the vortex-shedding modes of a fully-submerged sphere vibrating freely in all three spatial directions. We systematically verify and analyze the mode transitions and the motion trajectories in the three degrees-of-freedom (3-DOF) for the Reynolds number up to 30000. We next simulate the transversely vibrating (1-DOF) full-submerged sphere over a wide range of reduced velocities 3≤U∗≤20, whereby the reduced velocity is adjusted by changing the freestream Reynolds number. The VIV response amplitude and the topology of the wake structure are compared with the measurements for the mode I and mode II response branches. We further look into the effect of the free surface on the FIV response of a transversely vibrating sphere in the proximity of a free surface. The response dynamics of the sphere is studied for three representative values of normalized immersion ratio (h∗=h∕D, where h is the distance from the top of the sphere to undisturbed free-surface level and D is the sphere diameter), at h∗=1 (fully submerged sphere with no free-surface effect), h∗=0 (where the top of the sphere touches the free surface) and h∗=−0.25 (where the sphere pierces the free surface). At the lock-in range, we observe that the amplitude response of the sphere at h∗=0 is decreased significantly compared to the case at h∗=1. It is found that the vorticity flux is diffused due to the free-surface boundary and the free surface acts as a sink of energy that leads to a reduction in the transverse force and amplitude response. When the sphere pierces the free surface at h∗=−0.25, the amplitude response at the lock-in state is found to be greater than all the submerged cases studied with the maximum peak-to-peak amplitude of ∼2D. We find that the interaction of the piercing sphere with the air–water interface causes a relatively large surface deformation and has a significant impact on the synchronization of the vortex shedding and the vibration frequency. The streamwise vorticity contours and pressure distribution are employed to understand the VIV characteristics and wake dynamics. Increased streamwise vorticity gives rise to a relatively larger transverse force to the piercing sphere at h∗=−0.25, resulting in greater positive energy transfer per cycle to sustain the large-amplitude vibration. Lastly, we study the sensitivity of large-amplitude vibration on the mass ratio, m∗, and, Froude number, Fr, at the lock-in state.

Aerodynamic pressures on a 5:1 rectangular cylinder in sinusoidal streamwise oscillatory flows with non-zero mean velocities

In this paper, the aerodynamic pressures on a 5:1 rectangular cylinder in sinusoidal streamwise oscillatory flows (SSOFs) with non-zero mean velocities are studied through wind tunnel experiments. First, the mean and fluctuating pressure coefficients are determined based on the measurements in SSOFs with different reduced frequencies and gust amplitudes. The results are compared with those of smooth flow and grid-generated turbulent flow. Next, the power spectral densities of surface pressures are presented to study their energy distributions in the frequency domain. Then, the spanwise correlations of surface pressures in SSOFs are compared with those of smooth flow to explore their three-dimensional characteristics. The testing results show that the reduced frequency, varying from 0.012 to 0.032 has little effect on the streamwise pressure distributions of the 5:1 rectangular cylinder, and the influences of the gust amplitude of SSOFs are significant. The maximum RMS pressure coefficient increases and the separation bubble length reduces to a large degree as the gust amplitude increases. The spectral analysis demonstrates that the energy of fluctuating pressures in SSOFs is primarily from oscillatory streamwise gusts, while it is mainly provided by vortex shedding in smooth flow. The SSOF can accelerate the vortex shedding process and the Strouhal number increases as the increased gust amplitude. The spanwise correlations of pressures are strong in the majority region of the side surface of the 5:1 rectangular cylinder in SSOFs.

Quantification of rotor thrust and momentum deficit evolution in the wake using Nalu-Wind simulations

Nalu-Wind simulations of the neutral inflow Scaled Wind Farm Technology (SWiFT) benchmark were used to analyze which quantities of interest within the wind turbine wake and surrounding control volume are important in performing a momentum deficit analysis of the wind turbine thrust force. The necessary quantities of interest to conduct a full Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) formulation analysis were extracted along the control volume surfaces within the Nalu simulation domain over a 10 minute period. The thrust force calculated within the wake from two to eight diameters downstream using the control volume surfaces and the full RANS approach matched the thrust force that the wind turbine applied to the flowfield. A simplified one-dimension momentum analysis was included to determine if the inflow and wake velocities typically acquired during field campaigns would be sufficient to perform a momentum deficit analysis within a wind turbine wake. The one-dimensional analysis resulted in a 70% difference relative to the coefficient of thrust (Ct ) determined by the full RANS method at 2D downstream and a 40% difference from 5D to 8D, where D is the diameter of the turbine. This suggests that the quantities typically captured during field campaigns are insufficient to perform an accurate momentum deficit analysis unless streamwise pressure distribution is acquired, which reduced the relative difference to less than 10% for this particular atmospheric inflow.

Effect of Sensor Mounting and Flow History on Measured Wall Pressure Spectra

An experimental study of wall pressure fluctuations beneath a turbulent boundary layer was carried out on a plate model with a streamwise varying pressure gradient along the plate length. The wall pressure fluctuations were measured with flush-mounted Kulite sensors, and mean velocity measurements across the boundary layer were performed by using a single-wire hot-wire anemometer. A variety of streamwise pressure distributions were imposed by changing the position and the angle of attack of a NACA 0012 airfoil installed above the plate. The effect of the upstream flow history on the wall pressure spectra in the presence of the streamwise varying pressure gradient was studied. Spectral attenuation due to the spatial averaging associated with a finite sensor size was corrected via the Corcos correction. The results show that the Corcos correction to the measured Kulite spectra leads to an overprediction of the spectral intensity at medium frequencies and an underprediction at high frequencies. Hence, a new correction is proposed based on the measured spectral attenuation. Finally, the measurements also indicate that even slight imperfections in sensor mounting and relatively weak upstream flow disturbances can have a significant influence on the measured spectra of the wall pressure fluctuations.

Effect of the Pitot microtube diameter on pressure measurement in plane supersonic microjets

The article reports on results of estimating the Pitot tube diameter effect on the streamwise and lateral pressure distributions in plane supersonic air microjets. The study is aimed at obtaining reliable information on the microjet structure. The nozzles with the size of 22.3 × 2593 μm and 83.3 × 3823 μm are used in experiments. The supersonic flow from that nozzles is investigated by glass Pitot tubes in inner/outer diameters of 24/70 and 16/42 μm. Additional measurements are performed by a Pitot microtube 8 μm in outer diameter and ≈0.1 μm wall thickness. The value ranges for accuracy determination of supersonic jets main characteristics (shock cell sizes and supersonic core length) have been found.

Separated boundary layer transition under pressure gradient in the presence of free-stream turbulence

Large-eddy simulation (LES) has been carried out to investigate the transition process of a separated boundary layer on a flat plate. A streamwise pressure distribution is imposed to mimic the suction surface of a low-pressure turbine blade, and the free-stream turbulence intensity at the plate leading edge is 2.9%. A dynamic subgrid scale model is employed in the study, and the current LES results compare well with available experimental data and previous LES results. The transition process has been thoroughly analyzed, and streamwise streaky structures, known as the Klebanoff streaks, have been observed much further upstream of the separation. However, transition occurs in the separated shear layer and is caused by two mechanisms: streamwise streaks and the inviscid K-H instability. Analysis suggests that streamwise streaks play a dominant role in the transition process as those streaks severely disrupt and break up the K-H rolls once they are formed, leading to significant three-dimensional (3D) motions very rapidly. It is also demonstrated in the present study that the usual secondary instability stage under low free-stream turbulence intensity where coherent two-dimensional (2D) spanwise rolls get distorted gradually and eventually broken up into 3D structures has been bypassed.

DNS of unsteady effects on the control of laminar separated boundary layers

The main factor that determines the efficiency of a high-lift low-pressure-turbine operating at low Reynolds numbers is the size of the laminar separation bubble that forms on the suction side of the turbine blade. In this study, the suction side of a low-pressure gas-turbine blade is modeled as a flat plate with a streamwise pressure distribution. The combined effects of discrete surface roughness and periodic large-scale wake forcing on separation bubble transition and control are investigated numerically by direct numerical simulation. The laminar separation bubble is controlled by positioning the roughness element upstream of the separation bubble and introducing a low-frequency large-scale wake forcing. The three-dimensional discrete roughness with varying roughness height in the spanwise direction is modeled using immersed boundary method. The wake effect is numerically modeled as the mean wake deficit profile created by a linear row of cylinders moving in a direction perpendicular to the flat plate. Results indicate that the location of transition and hence the shape and extent of the separation bubble, largely depend on which of the above-noted passive control mechanisms dominates the unsteady transition process. It is shown that considering the mean flow properties, the roughness effect is found to be negligible compared to the individual wake effect.

Numerical investigation of transition in a boundary layer subjected to favourable and adverse streamwise pressure gradients and elevated free stream turbulence

Laminar-to-turbulent transition of a boundary layer subjected to streamwise pressure gradients and elevated free stream turbulence is computed through direct numerical simulation. The streamwise pressure distribution and elevated free stream turbulence levels mimic the conditions present on the suction side of highly-cambered airfoils. Longitudinal streamwise streaks form in the laminar boundary layer through the selective inclusion of low-frequency disturbances from the free stream turbulence. The spanwise spacing normalized by local inner variables indicates stabilization of the streaks occurs by the favourable pressure gradient and prevents the development of secondary streak instability modes until downstream of the suction peak. Two distinct processes are found to trigger transition to turbulence in the adverse pressure gradient region of the flow. One involves the development of varicose secondary instability of individual low-speed streaks that results in their breakdown and the formation and growth of discrete turbulent spots. The other involves a rapid amplification of free stream disturbances in the inflectional boundary layer in the adverse pressure gradient region that results in a largely homogeneous breakdown to turbulence across the span. The effect of high-frequency free stream disturbances on the streak secondary instability and on the nonlinear processes within the growing turbulent spot are analysed through the inviscid transport of instantaneous vorticity. The results suggest that free stream turbulence contributes to the growth of the turbulent spot by generating large strain rates that activate vortex-stretching and tilting processes within the spot.

Supersonic flow over circular protuberances on a flat plate

The nanotracer planar laser scattering (NPLS) technique is used to test the flow field of Mach 3.0 supersonic flow over circular protuberances. The protuberance heights (H) are 1, 2, and 4 mm, and the diameters (D) are all 4 mm with the Reynolds number of 7.7 × 106/m, while the thickness of the laminar boundary layer (δ) is about 1.2 mm at the mounting position, corresponding to H/δ values of 0.83, 1.67 and 3.33. The fine structures in the symmetrical plane of the flow field around the cylinders are imaged. In the NPLS images, expansion wave, three-dimensional bow-detached shock wave, reattachment shock wave and separation region ahead of the cylinders are clearly visualized. The spatial and temporal evolution characteristics of the vortex structures are analyzed. Special attention is paid to the study of the wake flow and the influence of the height of the protuberances on the wake flow, showing that vortices in the wake flow of the 1-mm high cylinder are isolated and simple, while to the 4-mm high cylinder are complex and mixed-up with less periodicity. After reattachment, the lower cylinder has a relatively longer laminar section as well as transition section. Fractal analysis is done on the wake flow, indicating that higher protuberances tend to have a larger fractal dimension and increasing slope. Based on the average fractal dimension of 50 NPLS images, the 2- and 4-mm cylinders have a close value while the 1-mm cylinder which is submerged in the boundary layer has a much smaller fractal dimension. Streamwise pressure distributions are measured both upstream and downstream, and the results show that the influence extent tends to depend little on the height of the cylinder. While the H/D values only influence on the size of the plateau region and the pressure increasing slope.

Three-dimensional rarefied gas flows in constricted microchannels with different aspect ratios: asymmetry bifurcations and secondary flows

Results are presented of three-dimensional (3D) lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) simulation on pressure-driven rarefied gas flows through microchannels with a sudden contraction–expansion of 3:1:3. The main parameters examined are channel aspect ratio (AR) and Knudsen number (Kn o ) of 1–7 and 0.001–0.1, respectively. To cover the slip flow regime, a Bosanquet-type effective viscosity and a modified second-order slip boundary condition are used to account for the rarefaction effect on gas viscosity. The in-house 3D LBM code is verified by comparing the computed centerline streamwise pressure distribution and critical Reynolds number (Re c) of asymmetric bifurcation with experimental ones measured by others. The results are discussed in the way to explore effects of AR and Kn o on the bifurcation limits Re c of symmetric and asymmetric streamwise flows and effects of AR on the cross-sectional secondary flow patterns, which are lacking in the literature. Specifically, Re c for asymmetry bifurcation is found to first decrease linearly with increasing AR and then level off at 112 for AR > 3, whereas Re c decreases approximately linearly with increasing Kn o . Moreover, Re c can be correlated with AR and Kn o in a simple expression. The observed cross-sectional two- or four-pair counter-rotating vortices in the present rarefied laminar microchannel flows are new in terms of its absence in Newtonian laminar flows through straight micro- and macrochannels. Its driving force is the anisotropic secondary normal stresses over the cross-section as a result of the nonlinearity of the axial pressure gradient and, in turn, compressibility effect.

Pulsatile Non-Newtonian Laminar Blood Flows through Arterial Double Stenoses

The paper presents a numerical investigation of non-Newtonian modeling effects on unsteady periodic flows in a two-dimensional (2D) pipe with two idealized stenoses of 75% and 50% degrees, respectively. The governing Navier-Stokes equations have been modified using the Cartesian curvilinear coordinates to handle complex geometries. The investigation has been carried out to characterize four different non-Newtonian constitutive equations of blood, namely, the (i) Carreau, (ii) Cross, (iii) Modified Casson, and (iv) Quemada models. The Newtonian model has also been analyzed to study the physics of fluid and the results are compared with the non-Newtonian viscosity models. The numerical results are represented in terms of streamwise velocity, pressure distribution, and wall shear stress (WSS) as well as the vorticity, streamlines, and vector plots indicating recirculation zones at the poststenotic region. The results of this study demonstrate a lower risk of thrombogenesis at the downstream of stenoses and inadequate blood supply to different organs of human body in the Newtonian model compared to the non-Newtonian ones.

Blockage effects on surface pressures: the case of an inclined flat plate with and without a guide plate

Wind tunnel wall confinement severely affects the flow characteristics around bluff bodies. In this experimental study, the blockage effects on the mean surface pressures of an inclined flat plate (aspect ratio = 0.5, tilt angle = 15–30°) with and without a guide plate were examined in two separated wind tunnels. The blockage ratio (BR) ranged from 1.79 to 16.12%, in which a BR of less than 5% was considered an interference-free case. The streamwise and spanwise pressure distributions are definitely affected by BR. Model configuration is another concern. Maskell’s correction method is applicable in the region of flow separation and corner vortices. There is only a minor correction in the stagnation flow region.

Large Eddy Simulations in Turbines: Influence of Roughness and Free-Stream Turbulence

The individual and coupled effects of the incoming free-stream turbulence (FST) and surface roughness on the transition of a separated shear layer over a flat plate is numerically investigated using Large eddy simulation (LES). The upper wall of the test section is inviscid and specifically contoured to impose a streamwise pressure distribution over the flat plate to simulate the suction surface of a low pressure turbine (LPT) blade. The interaction of the streamwise streaks due to FST and roughness with the separated shear layer is captured. The streaks induced by FST are intermittent in nature and the streaks due to roughness are steady for a given topology of the rough surface. Both FST and roughness promoted near-wall mixing. The ‘net effect’ of mixing in the pre-separated region is manifested by a shift the inflection point of the velocity profile towards the wall. This resulted in the upstream shift of the transition point and a significant reduction in the size of the separation bubble. The combined effect of FST and roughness further reduced the size of separation bubble. The streamwise evolution of the boundary layer parameters has been compared for different cases. The potential ‘roughness benefit’ obtained in the case of highly loaded turbine blades in terms of its considerable reduction of profile loss is also shown.

Direct Numerical Simulations of Transitional Separation-Bubble Development in Swept-Blade Flow Conditions

This paper describes numerical simulations of the instability mechanisms in a separation bubble subjected to a three-dimensional freestream pressure distribution. Two direct numerical simulations are performed of a separation bubble with laminar separation and turbulent reattachment under low freestream turbulence at flow Reynolds numbers and streamwise pressure distributions that approximate the conditions encountered on the suction side of typical low-pressure gas-turbine blades with blade sweep angles of 0 deg and 45 deg. The three-dimensional (3D) pressure field in the swept configuration produces a crossflow-velocity component in the laminar boundary layer upstream of the separation point that is unstable to a crossflow instability mode. The simulation results show that crossflow instability does not play a role in the development of the boundary layer upstream of separation. An increase in the amplification rate and the most amplified disturbance frequency is observed in the separated-flow region of the swept configuration and is attributed to boundary-layer conditions at the point of separation that are modified by the spanwise pressure gradient. This results in a slight upstream movement of the location where the shear layer breaks down to small-scale turbulence and modifies the turbulent mixing of the separated shear layer to yield a downstream shift in the time-averaged reattachment location. The results demonstrate that although crossflow instability does not appear to have a noticeable effect on the development of the transitional separation bubble, the 3D pressure field does indirectly alter the separation-bubble development by modifying the flow conditions at separation.

Large eddy simulations in low-pressure turbines: Effect of wakes at elevated free-stream turbulence

The transition of a separated shear layer over a flat plate, in the presence of periodic wakes and elevated free-stream turbulence (FST), is numerically investigated using Large Eddy Simulation (LES). The upper wall of the test section is inviscid and specifically contoured to impose a streamwise pressure distribution over the flat plate to simulate the suction surface of a low-pressure turbine (LPT) blade. Two different distributions representative of a ‘high-lift’ and an ‘ultra high-lift’ turbine blade are examined. Results obtained from the current LES compare favourably with the extensive experimental data previously obtained for these configurations. The LES results are then used to further investigate the flow physics involved in the transition process.In line with experimental experience, the benefit of wakes and FST obtained by suppressing the separation bubble, is more pronounced in ‘ultra high-lift’ design when compared to the ‘high-lift’ design. Stronger ‘Klebanoff streaks’ are formed in the presence of wakes when compared to the streaks due to FST alone. These streaks promoted much early transition. The weak Klebanoff streaks due to FST continued to trigger transition in between the wake passing cycles.The experimental inference regarding the origin of Klebanoff streaks at the leading edge has been confirmed by the current simulations. While the wake convects at local free-stream velocity, its impression in the boundary layer in the form of streaks convects much slowly. The ‘part-span’ Kelvin–Helmholtz structures, which were observed in the experiments when the wake passes over the separation bubble, are also captured. The non-phase averaged space-time plots manifest that reattachment is a localized process across the span unlike the impression of global reattachment portrayed by phase averaging.

Direct Numerical Simulations of Wake-Perturbed Separated Boundary Layers

A wake-perturbed flat plate boundary layer with a streamwise pressure distribution similar to those encountered on the suction side of typical low-pressure turbine blades is investigated by direct numerical simulation. The laminar boundary layer separates due to a strong adverse pressure gradient induced by suction along the upper simulation boundary, transitions, and reattaches while still subject to the adverse pressure gradient. Various simulations are performed with different wake passing frequencies, corresponding to the Strouhal number 0.0043< fθb/ΔU <0.0496 and wake profiles. The wake profile is changed by varying its maximum velocity defect and its symmetry. Results indicate that the separation and reattachment points, as well as the subsequent boundary layer development, are mainly affected by the frequency, but that the wake shape and intensity have little effect, and that the forcing is effective as long as the wake-passing period is shorter than the bubble-regeneration time. Moreover, the effect of the different frequencies can be predicted from a single experiment in which the separation bubble is allowed to reform after having been reduced by wake perturbations. The stability characteristics of the mean flows resulting from the forcing at different frequencies are evaluated in terms of local linear stability analysis based on the Orr-Sommerfeld equation.

Unsteady boundary-layer transition in low-pressure turbines

This paper examines the transition process in a boundary layer similar to that present over the suction surfaces of aero-engine low-pressure (LP) turbine blades. This transition process is of significant practical interest since the behaviour of this boundary layer largely determines the overall efficiency of the LP turbine. Modern ‘high-lift’ blade designs typically feature a closed laminar separation bubble on the aft portion of the suction surface. The size of this bubble and hence the inefficiency it generates is controlled by the transition between laminar and turbulent flow in the boundary layer and separated shear layer. The transition process is complicated by the inherent unsteadiness of the multi-stage machine: the wakes shed by one blade row convect through the downstream blade passages, periodically disturbing the boundary layers. As a consequence, the transition to turbulence is multi-modal by nature, being promoted by periodic and turbulent fluctuations in the free stream and the inherent instabilities of the boundary layer. Despite many studies examining the flow behaviour, the detailed physics of the unsteady transition phenomena are not yet fully understood. The boundary-layer transition process has been studied experimentally on a flat plate. The opposing test-section wall was curved to impose a streamwise pressure distribution typical of modern high-lift LP turbines over the flat plate. The presence of an upstream blade row has been simulated by a set of moving bars, which shed wakes across the test section inlet. Further upstream, a grid has been installed to elevate the free-stream turbulence to a level believed to be representative of multi-stage LP turbines. Extensive particle imaging velocimetry (PIV) measurements have been performed on the flat-plate boundary layer to examine the flow behaviour. In the absence of the incoming bar wakes, the grid-generated free-stream turbulence induces relatively weak Klebanoff streaks in the boundary layer which are evident as streamwise streaks of low-velocity fluid. Transition is promoted by the streaks and by the inherent inflectional (Kelvin–Helmholtz (KH)) instability of the separation bubble. In unsteady flow, the incoming bar wakes generate stronger Klebanoff streaks as they pass over the leading edge, which convect downstream at a fraction of the free-stream velocity and spread in the streamwise direction. The region of amplified streaks convects in a similar manner to a classical turbulent spot: the leading and trailing edges travel at around 88% and 50% of the free-stream velocity, respectively. The strongest disturbances travel at around 70% of the free-stream velocity. The wakes induce a second type of disturbance as they pass over the separation bubble, in the form of short-span KH structures. Both the streaks and the KH structures contribute to the early wake-induced transition. The KH structures are similar to those observed in the simulation of separated flow transition with high free-stream turbulence by McAuliffe & Yaras (ASME J. Turbomach., vol. 132, no. 1, 2010, 011004), who observed that these structures originated from localised instabilities of the shear layer induced by Klebanoff streaks. In the current measurements, KH structures are frequently observed directly under the path of the wake. The wake-amplified Klebanoff streaks cannot affect the generation of these structures since they do not arrive at the bubble until later in the wake cycle. Rather, the KH structures arise from an interaction between the flow disturbances in the wake and localised instabilities in the shear layer, which are caused by the weak Klebanoff streaks induced by the grid turbulence. The breakdown of the KH structures to small-scale turbulence occurs a short time after the wake has passed over the bubble, and is largely driven by the arrival of the wake-amplified Klebanoff streaks from the leading edge. During this process, the re-attachment location moves rapidly upstream. The minimum length of the bubble occurs when the strongest wake-amplified Klebanoff streaks arrive from the leading edge; these structures travel at around 70% of the free-stream velocity. The bubble remains shorter than its steady-flow length until the trailing edge of the wake-amplified Klebanoff streaks, travelling at 50% of the free-stream velocity, convect past. After this time, the reattachment location moves aft on the surface as a consequence of a calmed flow region which follows behind the wake-induced turbulence.

Sidewall Effects on Heat Transfer Coefficient in a Narrow Impingement Channel

This paper examines the local and averaged effects of channel height in the presence of sidewalls on heat transfer coefficients, with special attention given to the sidewall behavior. High resolution local heat transfer coefficient distributions on target and sidewall surfaces were computed using temperature sensitive paint, recorded via a scientific-grade charge-coupled device camera, and compared with available literature. This is important, as many of the major correlations related to impingement channels are directly applicable to wide arrays of jets, for which the influence of the presence of sidewalls is minimal. Streamwise pressure distributions were recorded and used to explain heat transfer trends and to determine the thermal effectiveness of each channel. Results are presented for average jet-based Reynolds numbers between 17,000 and 45,000. All experiments were carried out on a large-scale single-row 15-hole impingement channel (with an X/D of 5, a Y/D of 4, and a Z/D of 1, 3 and 5). It was observed that available correlations accurately predict the target surface heat transfer coefficients when the influence of the sidewall is minimal, typically at larger channel heights and lower Reynolds numbers. Smaller channel heights tend to outperform larger channels, when considering thermal effectiveness and channel-averaged heat transfer rates, due to the increased heat transfer on the channel sidewalls.