Strawberry Species Research Articles

American–Japanese Expedition to Hokkaido to Collect Berry Crops in 2004

Genetic resources of temperate berry crops were collected 7 to 27 July 2004 in Hokkaido, Japan, under a bilateral agreement between the United States and Japan. This expedition was a collaborative effort between the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), the University of New Hampshire, and Akita Prefectural College of Agriculture, Japan. Additional assistance was provided by the Hokkaido Governmental Plant Genetic Resources Center, several Forest Research Stations of the Hokkaido University, and private botanists. The expedition obtained 100 accessions encompassing eight genera and 29 species. In all, 84 seedlots, and 23 plants were obtained. The genera collected included: Actinidia, Fragaria, Lonicera, Morus, Ribes, Rubus, Sambucus, and Vaccinium. Plant and seed accessions from this trip are preserved and distributed from the USDA ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository in Corvallis, Ore., and from MAFF. The target genus for this expedition was Fragaria, so the trip was planned for July. Multiple samples of the two Japanese diploid strawberry species, Fragaria iinumae Makino and F. nipponica Makino (synonym = F. yezoensis H. Hara) were obtained during their prime ripening time. Ribes, Rubus, and Vaccinium fruits ripened later in the summer, but were collected when fruit were observed. Unfortunately, seeds of some of these accessions proved to be immature or nonviable upon extraction. We suggest that expeditions to collect these genera should be planned for late August. Morphological and molecular evaluation of collected germplasm is underway at the USDA ARS Corvallis Repository and at the University of New Hampshire.

Assessment of SSR Marker Transfer from the Cultivated Strawberry to Diploid Strawberry Species: Functionality, Linkage Group Assignment, and Use in Diversity Analysis

The cultivated strawberry, Fragaria ×ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier, originated via hybridization between octoploids F. chiloensis (L.) Mill. and F. virginiana Mill. These three octoploid species are thought to share a putative genome composition of AAA`A'BBB`B'. Diploid F. vesca L., is considered to have donated the A genome. Current attention to the development of a diploid model system for strawberry genomics warrants the assessment of simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker transferability between the octoploid and diploid species in Fragaria L. In the present study, 23 SSR primer pairs derived from F. ×ananassa `Earliglow' by genomic library screening were evaluated for their utility in six diploid Fragaria species, including eight representatives of F. vesca, four of F. viridis Weston, and one each of F. nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita, F. mandshurica Staudt, F. iinumae Makino, and F. nilgerrensis Schltdl. ex J. Gay. SSR primer pair functionality, as measured by amplification success rate (= 100% - failure rate) in each species, was ranked (from highest to lowest) as follows: F. vesca (98.4%) > F. iinumae (93.8%) = F. nubicola (93.8%) > F. mandshurica (87.5%) > F. nilgerrensis (75%) > F. viridis (73.4%). The extent to which these octoploid-derived SSR primer pairs generated markers that could be added to the F. vesca linkage map also was assessed. Of the 13 F. ×ananassa SSR markers that segregated codominantly in the F. vesca mapping population, 11 were assigned to linkage groups based upon close linkages to previously mapped loci. These markers were distributed over six of the seven F. vesca linkage groups, and can serve as anchor loci defining these six groups for purposes of comparative mapping between F. vesca and F. ×ananassa.

Microsatellite markers for Fragaria from ‘Strawberry Festival’ expressed sequence tags

AbstractWe present 37 microsatellite primer pairs developed from a cDNA library of Fragaria xananassa Duch. cv. Strawberry Festival. Polymorphism was high and the number of presumptive alleles of 13 expressed sequence tag–simple sequence repeats (EST–SSRs) in 70 strawberry cultivars ranged from five to 32 per primer pairs, averaging 16.1. Cross‐species amplification was also high and ranged from 89% in Fragaria vesca L. to 100% in the progenitor species of octoploid strawberry, Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Duch. and Fragaria virginiana Duch.

Resistance Sources to Xanthomonas fragariae in Non-octoploid Strawberry Species

Forty-three accessions from 11 strawberry species were screened in the greenhouse for resistance to three strains of Xanthomonas fragariae Kennedy and King. Among the accessions tested, Pen-5 of Fragaria pentaphylla Losink expressed either no symptoms or a hypersensitive reaction, while accessions Pen-2 and Pen-4 developed either no symptoms or restricted water-soaked lesions. Two accessions of F. moschata Duch were characterized by reduced translucency at the inoculation site in the course of symptom development. These accessions, representing three resistance types, were classified as highly resistant, resistant, and moderately resistant, respectively, based on mean separation of disease severity ratings. The classifications proved to be consistent with the results from measurements of bacterial populations on inoculated leaves of those genotypes. The study suggests that species of F. pentaphylla and F. moschata harbour diversified sources of resistance. Resistant genotypes were not detected in F. nilgerrensis Schlect, F. daltoniana J. Gay, F. nubicola Lindl, F. gracilis Losinsk, F. iinumae Makino, F. vesca L., F. viridis Duch, or F. orientalis Losinsk.

Iturup and Sakhalin Island Strawberries

A plant-collecting expedition to Iturup and Sakhalin Islands, Russian Federation, occurred between 21 July and 12 Sept. 2003. Actinidia, Rubus, Ribes, and Vaccinium, as well as seven accessions of strawberries, Fragaria L., were collected. Among them, a wild strawberry, Fragaria iturupensis Staudt, was collected on the eastern slope of Atsonupuri Volcano, Iturup Island, at 630 and 650 m elevation. This species was similar in habit, leaf color and overall appearance to the American strawberry species F. virginiana Mill. Fruits were bright red, oblate spherical, about 1.4 cm in diameter, and had exerted achenes. The native distribution of this species was limited to the middle elevation of the slope of this volcano, and only on Iturup Island. Chromosome counts indicated that these plants were octoploid. Initial DNA fingerprinting aligned this sample with other octoploid species. In addition to this species, samples of F. yezoensis H. Hara (syn. F. nipponica Makino) were collected on Kuibyshewskii Bay of Cape Otlivnoy, Iturup, and near Ujno-Sakhalinsk City, Sakhalin Island. F. iinumae Makino was observed in Ogon'ki Village, Sakhalin Island. This report confirmed the existence of F. iturupensis, the only known native Asian octoploid strawberry, and documented its limited range. Seeds of these strawberry species are available for research by request from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Clonal Germplasm Repository in Corvallis.

Responses of Strawberry Species and Cultivars to the Root-lesion and Northern Root-knot Nematodes

The relative susceptibility of 44 genotypes of wild Fragaria L. and commercial cultivars of strawberry Fragaria ×ananassa Duch. to Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood and Pratylenchus penetrans (Cobb) Filipjev & Shuurmans Stekhoven was evaluated in the greenhouse. Eleven genotypes were highly resistant to populations of M. hapla from Washington State and Oregon, with Rf values (initial nematode density/final population density) less than 0.5. However, root growth of most genotypes, including resistant genotypes, was reduced by M. hapla. Thirteen genotypes were ranked more resistant to P. penetrans than F. ×ananassa `Totem', a susceptible cultivar. Root growth of most genotypes was not affected by P. penetrans under these experimental conditions. We conclude that commercial cultivars and wild Fragaria genotypes can provide a readily exploitable source of resistance to M. hapla. Conversely, sources of resistance to P. penetrans were uncommon in the germplasm evaluated. The F. ×ananassa cultivars, which already have commercially important characteristics, appear to be a better source of resistance for both nematode species than the wild, unimproved germplasm.

Gain and Loss of Fruit Flavor Compounds Produced by Wild and Cultivated Strawberry Species

The blends of flavor compounds produced by fruits serve as biological perfumes used to attract living creatures, including humans. They include hundreds of metabolites and vary in their characteristic fruit flavor composition. The molecular mechanisms by which fruit flavor and aroma compounds are gained and lost during evolution and domestication are largely unknown. Here, we report on processes that may have been responsible for the evolution of diversity in strawberry (Fragaria spp) fruit flavor components. Whereas the terpenoid profile of cultivated strawberry species is dominated by the monoterpene linalool and the sesquiterpene nerolidol, fruit of wild strawberry species emit mainly olefinic monoterpenes and myrtenyl acetate, which are not found in the cultivated species. We used cDNA microarray analysis to identify the F. ananassa Nerolidol Synthase1 (FaNES1) gene in cultivated strawberry and showed that the recombinant FaNES1 enzyme produced in Escherichia coli cells is capable of generating both linalool and nerolidol when supplied with geranyl diphosphate (GPP) or farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), respectively. Characterization of additional genes that are very similar to FaNES1 from both the wild and cultivated strawberry species (FaNES2 and F. vesca NES1) showed that only FaNES1 is exclusively present and highly expressed in the fruit of cultivated (octaploid) varieties. It encodes a protein truncated at its N terminus. Green fluorescent protein localization experiments suggest that a change in subcellular localization led to the FaNES1 enzyme encountering both GPP and FPP, allowing it to produce linalool and nerolidol. Conversely, an insertional mutation affected the expression of a terpene synthase gene that differs from that in the cultivated species (termed F. ananassa Pinene Synthase). It encodes an enzyme capable of catalyzing the biosynthesis of the typical wild species monoterpenes, such as alpha-pinene and beta-myrcene, and caused the loss of these compounds in the cultivated strawberries. The loss of alpha-pinene also further influenced the fruit flavor profile because it was no longer available as a substrate for the production of the downstream compounds myrtenol and myrtenyl acetate. This phenomenon was demonstrated by cloning and characterizing a cytochrome P450 gene (Pinene Hydroxylase) that encodes the enzyme catalyzing the C10 hydroxylation of alpha-pinene to myrtenol. The findings shed light on the molecular evolutionary mechanisms resulting in different flavor profiles that are eventually selected for in domesticated species.

Desempenho da cultura da rúcula cultivada em época de verão em túneis baixos de polietileno perfurado

O túnel baixo é um tipo de ambiente protegido utilizado, principalmente, em cultivo de espécies de pequeno porte, como alface, morango, pimentão, rúcula e pepino. Por serem estruturas de menor porte, apresentam menor custo de instalação em relação ao túnel alto. A presença de material plástico em sua cobertura proporciona um ganho térmico durante o dia, facilitando o crescimento das plantas, protegendo as culturas do impacto da chuva, dos ventos frios e das temperaturas mínimas. Esta pesquisa teve o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de filme de polietileno com diferentes intensidades de perfurações (0; 5; 10; 15 e 20%), no microclima em túneis baixos e no desenvolvimento da cultura da rúcula (Eruca vesicaria sativa (Mill) Thell) em época de verão. Os resultados mostraram que houve diferença de produtividade entre os túneis com diferentes níveis de perfuração e houve diferenças significativas quanto às características físicas da planta em alguns tratamentos comparativos à testemunha. Quanto aos aspectos relacionados com o microclima, verificou-se, por meio de análise estatística, que a temperatura do ar observada nos horários mais críticos do dia (11 às 15 h) apresentou diferenças significativas entre o ambiente coberto com túnel sem perfuração e o solo descoberto; com relação à umidade absoluta do ar, quanto maior o nível de perfuração do plástico de cobertura do túnel, menor a umidade absoluta observada.

The Detection and Variation of Strawberry mottle virus.

Strawberry mottle virus (SMoV) is probably the most important virus to infect strawberry (Fragaria spp.). All species of strawberry are susceptible to SMoV, resulting in severe losses both in fruit and runner yield. However, due to the absence of definitive symptoms in commercial varieties, the only effective means of detecting SMoV is by transmission to susceptible indicator plants. In this study, we describe a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method for the detection of SMoV in Fragaria spp. with the use of primers specific for the noncoding regions (NCR) of both RNA1 and RNA2 of the virus. Using this method, all of 16 isolates from various geographical origins were positive for SMoV. Partial sequences of a 327-nt long coding region were obtained for the putative large coat protein of all isolates by RT-PCR using degenerate primers. Nucleotide identities between isolates ranged from 72.8 to 99.7%. A 546-nt sequence of the putative polymerase gene of nine isolates was obtained by RT-PCR and compared. Nucleotide identities ranged from 73.4 to 100%. There was a clear tendency for isolates to group according to their geographical origin. Sequence data obtained of the NCR show four completely conserved regions of 20 or more bases.

Catalytic properties of alcohol acyltransferase in different strawberry species and cultivars.

The substrate specificity of alcohol acyltransferase (AAT) enzymes from different strawberry varieties was studied. Proteins with AAT activity from fruits of Fragaria x ananassa Duch. cv. Oso Grande were purified to apparent homogeneity and used for kinetic studies with different straight-chain alcohols and acyl-CoAs. K(m) values obtained for Oso Grande enzyme with six different alcohols, using acetyl-CoA as cosubstrate, decreased with increasing length of the alcohol chain. In similar experiments the increase in the acyl-CoA carbon chain was also found to be correlated with a higher substrate specificity. Heptanol (K(m) = 0.73 mM) and hexanoyl-CoA (K(m) = 0.41 mM) were the best substrates for Oso Grande AAT. Comparative catalytic studies were carried out with AAT partially purified extracts from the wild type Fragaria vesca and five commercial strawberry varieties: Tudnew, Carisma, Camarosa, Sweet Charlie, and Eris. The specificities of these enzymes toward five selected alcohols and acyl-CoAs reflected interesting cultivar differences.

Successful strategy for the selection of new strawberry-associated rhizobacteria antagonistic to Verticillium wilt.

In order to isolate and characterize new strawberry-associated bacteria antagonistic to the soil-borne pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae Kleb., rhizobacterial populations from two different strawberry species, Greenish Strawberry (Fragaria viridis) and Garden Strawberry (F. x ananassa) obtained after plating onto King's B and glycerol-arginine agar, were screened for in vitro antagonism toward V. dahliae. The proportion of isolates with antifungal activity determined in in vitro assay against V. dahliae was higher for the Garden Strawberry than for the Greenish Strawberry. From 300 isolates, 20 isolates with strong antifungal activity were selected characterized by physiological profiling and molecular fingerprinting methods. Diversity among the isolates was characterized with molecular fingerprints using amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) and the more discriminating BOX-PCR fingerprint method. The physiological profiles were well correlated with molecular fingerprinting pattern analysis. Significant reduction of Verticillium wilt by bacterial dipping bath treatment was shown in the greenhouse and in fields naturally infested by V. dahliae. The relative increase of yield ranged from 117% (Streptomyces albidoflavus S1) to 344% (Pseudomonas fluorescens P10) in greenhouse trials, and 113% (Streptomyces albidoflavus S1) to 247% (Pseudomonas fluorescens P6) in field trials. Evaluation resulted in the selection of three effective biocontrol agents (Pseudomonas fluorescens P6, P10, and Streptomyces diastatochromogenes S9) antagonistic to the Verticillium wilt pathogen.

Our Southern Strawberry Heritage: Fragaria chiloensis of Chile

The strawberry genus, Fragaria, is a polyploid series composed of nine diploids, three tetraploids, one pentaploid, one hexaploid, and four octoploids (Hancock and Luby, 1993). The primary species of international commerce is the octoploid F. ×ananassa Duch. (2x = 8n = 56), a hybrid of F. chiloensis L. and F. virginiana Duch. Native populations of F. chiloensis are found on the beaches and mountains of central and southern Chile, Hawaii, and in a narrow band along the coast of western North America from the middle of California to the Aleutian Islands. Wild F. virginiana is native to the woodlands and meadows of much of the United States and Canada. The evolutionary origin of the octoploid strawberry species is clouded. Cytogenetic data indicate that they are complex hybrids with the genomic constitution AAA’A’BBB’B’ (Bringhurst, 1990). The A genome donor has been identified as F. vesca L., but the other genomic contributors remain obscure. Although F. chiloensis and F. virginiana are restricted to the western hemisphere, the octoploids probably originated in the eastern hemisphere, as F. vesca is the only other species found in the United States and Canada. The point of origin is unclear, but the range of F. chiloensis extends north and west along the Aleutian Islands, almost to the Kuril Islands, where the only Asian octoploid, F. iturupensis Staudt, is found (Staudt, 1973). This suggests that the original octoploid arose in East Asia and then spread across the Bering Strait to North America. The ancestral octoploid species must have differentiated into F. chiloensis and F. virginiana as they moved south and developed differential adaptations to coastal and mountain habitats (Luby et al., 1992). In fact, the two species are completely interfertile and no significant differences between them have been identified in chloroplast DNA (Harrison et al., 1997a). Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA data suggest that they have remained relatively isolated, but the interspecific fertility and proximity of these groups have allowed for occasional introgression (Harrison et al., 1997b). The origin of Chilean and Hawaiian F. chiloensis is just as obscure, but presumably they were introduced from North America via bird migrations. Interestingly, the single Chilean species F. chiloensis has evolved multiple ecotypes that fill the habitats of both North American species, F. chiloensis and F. virginiana. At high elevations in Chile, plants occur that have the glaucous, thin leaves characteristic of F. virginiana ssp. glauca (Wats.) Staudt in the Rocky Mountains. On the beach in Chile, forms of F. chiloensis ssp. chiloensis f. patagonica Staudt can be found that resemble both the glossy, thick-leaved F. chiloensis ssp. pacifica Staudt found in the coastal fog belt of California and the more delicate F. chiloensis ssp. lucida (E. Vilm.) found on the coast of the Pacific Northwest (Cameron et al., 1991; Darrow, 1966; Lavin, 1997). DOMESTICATION OF THE CHILEAN STRAWBERRY utilized well over 1000 years ago by the indigenous Mapuches between the rivers Biobio and Tolten in south-central Chile, and by the more northern Picunches tribe between the rivers Itata and Biobio. The Picunches had contact with the northern-agrarian Inca invaders and were probably the first to transport elite plants from the wild to their home gardens. The Mapuches were primarily hunters and gatherers, but learned about agriculture from the Picunches (Aldunate, 1989). The Picunches grew mainly corn (Zea mays L.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L. and P. lunatus L.), squashes (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne ex Lam.), oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina), pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), madi [Madia chilensis (Nutt.) Reiche], and mango (Mangifera indica L.) (Montaldo, 1988). Strawberry fruits were used by the native Chileans fresh, dried, as a fermented juice or as medicinal infusions against indigestion, diarrhea, and bleeding (De Moesbach, 1992). The Mapuches made many other kinds of fermented juices, but their favorite was the one from the “llahuen” or “lahuene” (small, red-fruited wild strawberry) that was called “lahuene mushca” (Labarca, 1994). Most evidence indicates that the primary domesticants were the larger, white-fruited forms, called “kellen” or “quellghen” by the Mapuches. Albino-fruited types are rare in nature, but have been found at three southern locations. When subjected to a multivariate analysis, these forms were more closely associated with the cultivated white types than with the native wild red ones (de Pozo et al., unpublished; Lavin, 1997).

Resistance to two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae in strawberry cultivars and wild species of Fragaria and Potentilla

SummaryCultivars of strawberry and wild species of Fragaria and Potentilla were tested for resistance to two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, mainly by recording the numbers of eggs laid over a standard period. On some clones of F. chiloensis significantly fewer eggs were laid than on the standard, cv. Elsanta, in no-choice tests, and fewer eggs were laid on clone DL-40 than ‘Elsanta’ in a choice test. Differences were detected in the numbers of eggs laid on individual strawberry cultivars tested, but, as with the F. chiloensis clones, the results of the experiments showed inconsistencies. The number of eggs laid and the time for development from egg to adult were similar overall on newly-propagated plants and one year old plants that had experienced dormancy and chilling. However, some cultivars, and clone DL-40, gave results significantly different from ‘Elsanta’ for these parameters. Results from experiments with the progeny of crosses using cultivars/clones showing reduced fecundity did not suggest the involvement of major genes, since there was no clear segregation between resistant and susceptible categories in either the F1 or F2 generations. No reductions in the numbers of eggs laid were found in the species of Potentilla tested.

3種イチゴウイルスのイチゴ近縁野生植物における発生

3種イチゴウイルスのイチゴ近縁野生植物における発生

Relative Virulence of Agrobacterium Strains on Strawberry

Several strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes were shown to form tumors on runners of the diploid strawberry species Fragaria vesca L. Tumors, weighing from 0.1 to 8.3 mg, appeared from 2 to 4.5 weeks after infection. The majority of tumors tested for opine synthesis by high-voltage paper electrophoresis analysis showed positive results. These results demonstrate that diploid strawberry plants are susceptible to infection with Agrobacterium and that there are differences in the relative virulence of Agrobacterium strains.

Gas exchange properties of strawberry species and their hybrids

Clones of Fragaria chiloensis had significantly higher rates of net CO 2 assimilation (A), leaf conductance to water vapor (g 1), residual conductance to CO 2 (g r) and water use efficiency (WUE) than F. × ananassa. There was a significant correlation ( P < 0.05) between A and percentage of recently derived F. chiloensis genes among several breeding populations.

Leaf dynamics and profitability in wild strawberries.

Leaf dynamics and carbon gain were evaluated for two species of wild strawberry, Fragaria virginiana and F. vesca. Five populations on sites representing a gradient of successional regrowth near Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A., were studied for two or three years each. A computer-based model of plant growth and CO2 exchange combined field studies of leaf biomass dynamics with previously-determined gas exchange rates to estimate carbon balances of leaves and whole plants in different environments.Leaves were produced throughout the growing season, although there was usually a decline in rate of leaf-production in mid-summer. Leaves produced in late spring had the largest area and longest lifespan (except for overwintering leaves produced in the fall). Specific Leaf Weight (SLW) varied little with time of leaf production, but differed greatly among populations; SLW increased with amount of light received in each habitat. The population in the most open habitat had the least seasonal variation in all leaf characters. F. vesca produced lighter, longer-lived leaves than F. virginiana.Simulations showed that age had the largest effect on leaf carbon gain in high-light environments; water stress and temperature had lesser effects. Leaf carbon gain in lowlight environments was relatively unaffected by age and environmental factors other than light. Leaves in high-light environments had the greatest lifetime profit and the greatest ratio of profit to cost. Increasing lifespan by 1/3 increased profit by 80% in low-light leaves and 50% in high-light leaves. Increasing the number of days during which the leaf had the potential to exhibit high photosynthetic rate in response to high light led to little change in profit of low-light leaves while increasing profit of high-light leaves by 49%.

Differential costs of sexual and vegetative reproduction in wild strawberry populations.

The CO2 costs of producing sexual and vegetative reproductive propagules were calculated for two species of wild strawberry, Fragaria virginiana and F. vesca. Five populations on sites representing a gradient of successional regrowth near Ithaca, New York, USA, were studied for two or three years each. Field studies of phenology, biomass, demography, and environment and laboratory studies of CO2 exchange were integrated using a computerbased model of CO2 dynamics to estimate costs of propagules.The percentage of plants flowering and the number of flower buds produced were highest in an open, recently disturbed habitat and lowest in a forest habitat. The openhabitat plants had the greatest success in converting flower buds into ripe fruits and also produced the highest numbers of runners and runner plantlets. On the basis of total investments in structure and respiration minus any photosynthetic gain of all reproductive structures, the cost per seed was lowest in the most open habitats and highest and increasingly variable in the more closed habitats. The cost of plantlets also was lowest in the most open habitat. The differences among habitats in cost of plantlets alive after one or two growing seasons increased due to differential survivorship of plantlets, with the open habitat continuing to have the lowest cost per plantlet. Theoretical treatments of life history characteristics such as reproductive effort should recognize that costs of equivalent type and size of propagule may vary among environments.

No Species Names for Strawberries Ever Published by A. N. Duchesne

It has become established to use Duchesne's names for most strawberry species. These names are binomials published by the then 19-year old Duchesne in his Histoire naturelle des Fraisiers (Paris, 1766). Unfortunately, young Duchesne in his book was at great pains to explain that all strawberries belonged to one and the same and he coined his binomials to refer to what he called constant races. He at the same time was a strong believer in the constancy of species and the discoverer of the celebrated mutation 'Fragaria monophylla'. To escape a dilemma, he believed that within each immutable species constant races might have appeared and might be appearing, and he provided a phylogenetic table of those in the single strawberry species. Races differed from varieties in being constant, even though, like varieties, they probably resulted from environmental influences. Some relevant quotations from his book include (in translation): (p. 21) is certain that although species are stable, there are also races constant in their differences, although within the same species, (p. 47) having described their it is proper to speak of the various races that are distinguished within it, (p. 48) I know ten main races, to which several varieties must be referred. Here is their list: Fragaria semperflorens, F. silvestris, F. hortensis, F. aflagellis, F. monophylla, F. viridis, F. moschata, F. chiloensis, F. ananassa, F. virginiana. In a later paper (Encycl. meth. Bot. 2: 527. 1786), Duchesne contemplated the possibility that his strawberry races comprised two rather than a single but he never offered the binomials now in use as species names. Art. 24.4 states use of a binary combination for an infraspecific taxon is not admissible. The correct name for F. race chiloensis (L.) Duch. as a species appears to be F. chiloensis P. Miller (Gard. Dict. ed. 8. 1768). However, because both F. vesca [var.] /3 chiloensis L. (Sp. PI.: 495. 1753) and F. chiloensis are based on the same type (Dillenius), it may be cited as F. chiloensis (L.) P. Miller. The correct name for F. race virginiana Duch. as a species appears to be F. virginiana P. Miller (Gard. Dict. ed. 8. 1768). The correct name for F. race moschata Duch. as a species appears to be F. moschata Weston (Bot. univ. 2: 327. 1771). An earlier name, F. muricata P. Miller (Gard. Dict. ed. 8. 1768) is a later homonym of F. muricata L. (Sp. PI.: 495. 1753). The correct name for F. race viridis Duch. as a species appears to be F. viridis Weston (Bot. univ. 2: 327. 1771). The correct name for F. race ananassa Duch. as a species (hybrid) seems to be F. x magna Thuillier (Fl. env. Paris, ed. 2: 254. 1800), a matter that awaits checking Thuillier's type, if any. An earlier name, F. grandiflora Ehrh. (Beitr. Naturk. 7: 25. 1792) is a later homonym of F. grandiflora (L.) Crantz (Inst. Rei herb. 2: 179. 1766), independently republished by Lamarck (Fl. franc. 3: 112. 1778). At the varietal level the epithet ananassa was published by Weston (Bot. univ. 2: 329. 1771) as F. chiloensis var. ananassa.

Deriyation of the Binomial Fragaria ⨯ ananassa for the Cultivated Strawberry1

Abstract Although strawberry species have existed for an estimated 50 million years (17), and their use by man has been dated to the bronze age (19), only after the 14th century A.D. were strawberry plants gathered from the wild and grown in gardens. These first cultivated strawberry plants were grown for both ornamental and medicinal purposes (11). The strawberries of the past were different from those of today. The fruit was small, plants were not productive, and in many respects were far inferior to the large fruited cultivars that are now grown in many parts of the world.