Nature Conservation Strategies Research Articles

Current models broadly neglect specific needs of biodiversity conservation in protected areas under climate change.

BackgroundProtected areas are the most common and important instrument for the conservation of biological diversity and are called for under the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity. Growing human population densities, intensified land-use, invasive species and increasing habitat fragmentation threaten ecosystems worldwide and protected areas are often the only refuge for endangered species. Climate change is posing an additional threat that may also impact ecosystems currently under protection. Therefore, it is of crucial importance to include the potential impact of climate change when designing future nature conservation strategies and implementing protected area management. This approach would go beyond reactive crisis management and, by necessity, would include anticipatory risk assessments. One avenue for doing so is being provided by simulation models that take advantage of the increase in computing capacity and performance that has occurred over the last two decades.Here we review the literature to determine the state-of-the-art in modeling terrestrial protected areas under climate change, with the aim of evaluating and detecting trends and gaps in the current approaches being employed, as well as to provide a useful overview and guidelines for future research.ResultsMost studies apply statistical, bioclimatic envelope models and focus primarily on plant species as compared to other taxa. Very few studies utilize a mechanistic, process-based approach and none examine biotic interactions like predation and competition. Important factors like land-use, habitat fragmentation, invasion and dispersal are rarely incorporated, restricting the informative value of the resulting predictions considerably.ConclusionThe general impression that emerges is that biodiversity conservation in protected areas could benefit from the application of modern modeling approaches to a greater extent than is currently reflected in the scientific literature. It is particularly true that existing models have been underutilized in testing different management options under climate change. Based on these findings we suggest a strategic framework for more effectively incorporating the impact of climate change in models exploring the effectiveness of protected areas.

Dragonflies and climatic change - recent trends in Germany and Europe

In this paper the trends of dragonfly expansions during the last decades in Germany and Europe are summarized. It is shown, that there is a general expansion of many species to the north: Mediterranean species expanded to Central and Northern Europe, whereas some African species expanded to Southern Europe, some are even new to the continent. In general this means an increase of biodiversity, but looking at the ecological effects, in the medium term a decrease can be expected for mooreland and alpine species. Dragonflies can be regarded as a good indicator group for climatic change. Already now in some areas or regions negative effects on waters bodies and their dragonfly communities can be observed and more will occur if e.g. temperature rises or precipitation decreases. The consequences for nature conservation strategies – such as the NATURA 2000 network – are outlined and the general need for monitoring programmes is emphasised.

Performing Expertise: Landscape, Governmentality and Conservation Planning in Iceland

In this paper a qualitative case study is presented, addressing the Icelandic Nature Conservation Strategy 2004–2008. The objective is to investigate the subjectification of landscape to methodologies designed for biodiversity conservation. For that purpose, we analyse the role of expertise in the formulation of the strategy and interpret with the help of the two central analytical concepts: performance and governmentality. Landscape has received increased attention in Iceland, the reason being partly increased public awareness of the importance of Icelandic landscapes as natural heritage and the threats allegedly posed to them by certain land uses such as hydro and geothermal power production. This interest is reflected in the Nature Conservation Strategy, where an attempt was made to take landscape values systematically into consideration in conservation planning. The guiding concept in the strategy as a whole, however, was that of biodiversity. The analysis revealed several complications regarding the inclusion of landscape in such a context, owing to various reasons, practical as well as theoretical. Part of the problem seems to be the ontological and epistemological differences between the conceptualization of landscape and the methodology developed for the strategy.

A methodological study of biotope mapping in nature conservation

This paper reviews biotope mapping methods in nature conservation and shows that the perspectives of biotope mapping have changed from protection of valuable biotopes for rare and endangered species to a modern nature conservation strategy, i.e. maintaining and increasing biodiversity as a component of human daily life. Two key issues of biotope mapping are highlighted: how to increase the chances of people having contact with urban biodiversity based on biotope mapping, and how to develop an effective method of biotope mapping in order to obtain much more urban biodiversity information. It is found that comprehensive surveys of all land parcels are important in urban biotope mapping, and especially investigation of small-scale biotopes close to people’s living places that still have potential biodiversity value. Many studies show that there is a close relation between vegetation structure and biodiversity. A modified biotope classification method integrated with structural variables is proposed for biotope mapping as a basis for urban biodiversity development.

Ecological processes: A key element in strategies for nature conservation

Summary A common approach to nature conservation is to identify and protect natural ‘assets’ such as ecosystems and threatened species. While such actions are essential, protection of assets will not be effective unless the ecological processes that sustain them are maintained. Here, we consider the role of ecological processes and the complementary perspective for conservation arising from an emphasis on process. Many kinds of ecological processes sustain biodiversity: including climatic processes, primary productivity, hydrological processes, formation of biophysical habitats, interactions between species, movements of organisms and natural disturbance regimes. Anthropogenic threats to conservation exert their influence by modifying or disrupting these processes. Such threats extend across tenures, they frequently occur offsite, they commonly induce non‐linear responses, changes may be irreversible and the full consequences may not be experienced for lengthy periods. While many managers acknowledge these considerations in principle, there is much scope for greater recognition of ecological processes in nature conservation and greater emphasis on long time‐frames and large spatial scales in conservation planning. Practical measures that promote ecological processes include: monitoring to determine the trajectory and rate of processes; incorporating surrogates for processes in conservation and restoration projects; specific interventions to manipulate and restore processes; and planning for the ecological future before options are foreclosed. The long‐term conservation of biodiversity and the well‐being of human society depend upon both the protection of natural assets and maintaining the integrity of the ecological processes that sustain them.

Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making

Despite the growing body of literature on ecosystem services, still many challenges remain to structurally integrate ecosystem services in landscape planning, management and design. This paper therefore aims to provide an overview of the challenges involved in applying ecosystem service assessment and valuation to environmental management and discuss some solutions to come to a comprehensive and practical framework. First the issue of defining and classifying ecosystem services is discussed followed by approaches to quantify and value ecosystem services. The main part of the paper is focussed on the question how to analyze trade-offs involved in land cover and land use change, including spatial analysis and dynamic modelling tools. Issues of scale are addressed, as well as the question how to determine the total economic value of different management states. Finally, developments and challenges regarding the inclusion of ecosystem services in integrative landscape planning and decision-making tools are discussed. It is concluded that the ecosystem service approach and ecosystem service valuation efforts have changed the terms of discussion on nature conservation, natural resource management, and other areas of public policy. It is now widely recognized that nature conservation and conservation management strategies do not necessarily pose a trade-off between the “environment” and “development”. Investments in conservation, restoration and sustainable ecosystem use are increasingly seen as a “win-win situation” which generates substantial ecological, social and economic benefits.

Patterns and Challenges of Urban Nature Conservation—A Study of Southern Sweden

The current, dominating strategy of nature conservation within urban landscapes is to formally protect remaining patches of unexploited nature in nature reserves. However, integration of nature conservation frameworks into urban planning requires reconsideration of key issues, such as why, where, and how to protect nature in a purposeful way. As part of that process I statistically evaluate current nature conservation in 209 municipalities in southern Sweden by analysing the number, size, age, and land cover patterns of 1869 nature reserves in relation to the degree of urbanisation. The analyses reveal that in urban municipalities the nature reserves are fewer, but larger, and have a higher diversity of land covers. Having large nature reserves may be especially important in urban landscapes, since it is often highly fragmented. The land cover compositions show no differences between urban and rural nature reserves. However, urban nature reserves differ more from their surroundings compared with rural nature reserves, according to the identified changes in representation of land cover types with an increasing degree of urbanisation. The most urgent future challenge identified is to develop urban nature conservation strategies that are integrated into the urban context including other green areas and built-up areas, the land-use history, and the requirements for local ecosystem services across the landscape.

Quantifying plant species diversity in a Natura 2000 network: Old ideas and new proposals

Assessing the effects of the spatial components on species diversity in a network of protected areas represents an important step for assessing its conservation “capacity”. A clear evaluation on how α-, β-, and γ-diversity are partitioned among and within spatial scales can help to drive manager decisions and provide method for monitoring species diversity. Moving from these concepts, a probabilistic sample of plant species composition was here applied for quantifying plant species diversity within the Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) of the Natura 2000 network in the Siena Province. All analyses were performed separately for all species and those species defined as “focal” (included in regional, national or continental “red” lists). The results indicated that species richness of the SCIs differed from one location to another one independently from the sampling efforts. Diversity partitioning indicated that most of the flora diversity within the network was given by larger-scale β-diversity, i.e. the differences in species composition among SCIs. β-diversity was then decomposed in two components: β Area (due to the differences in area among SCIs) and β Replacement (due to the compositional differences across SCIs). β Area was particularly important for all species, while β Replacement was the most important factor for focal species. The consequent implications for monitoring and nature conservation strategies are discussed.

Modelling vascular plant diversity at the landscape scale using systematic samples

AbstractAim We predict fine‐scale species richness patterns at large spatial extents by linking a systematic sample of vascular plants with a multitude of independent environmental descriptors.Location Switzerland, covering 41,244 km2 in central Europe.Methods Vascular plant species data were collected along transects of 2500‐m length within 1‐km2 quadrats on a systematic national grid (n = 354), using a standardized assessment method. Generalized linear models (GLM) were used to correlate species richness of vascular plants per transect (SRt) with three sets of variables: topography, environment and land cover. Regression models were constructed by the following process: reduction of collinearity among variables, model selection based on Akaike’s information criterion (AIC), and the percentage of deviance explained (D2). A synthetic model was then built using the best variables from all three sets of variables. Finally, the best models were used in a predictive mode to generate maps of species richness (SRt) at the landscape scale using the moving window approach based on 1‐km2 moving windows with a resolution of 1 ha.Results The best explanatory model consisted of seven variables including 14 linear and quadratic parameters, and explained 74% of the deviance (D2 = 0.742). Used in a predictive mode, the model generated maps with distinctive horizontal belts of highest species richness at intermediate altitudes along valley slopes. Belts of higher richness were also present along rivers and around large forest patches and larger villages, as well as on mountains.Main conclusions The approach involved using consistent samples of species linked to information on the environment at a fine scale enabled landscapes to be compared in terms of predicted species richness. The results can therefore be applied to support the development of national nature conservation strategies. At the landscape scale, belts of high species richness correspond to steep environmental gradients and associated increases in local habitat diversity. In the mountains, the belts of increased species richness are at intermediate altitudes. These general belt‐like patterns at mid‐elevation are found in all model parameterizations. Other patterns, such as belts along rivers, are visible in specific parameterizations only. Thus we recommend using several sets of parameters in such modelling studies in order to capture the underlying spatial complexity of biodiversity.

Mapping the World's Intact Forest Landscapes by Remote Sensing

Potapov, P., A. Yaroshenko, S. Turubanova, M. Dubinin, L. Laestadius, C. Thies, D. Aksenov, A. Egorov, Y. Yesipova, I. Glushkov, M. Karpachevskiy, A. Kostikova, A. Manisha, E. Tsybikova, and I. Zhuravleva. 2008. Mapping the world’s intact forest landscapes by remote sensing. Ecology and Society 13(2): 51. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02670-130251

Impacts of climate change on biodiversity - consolidated knowledge and research gaps.

Abstract Climate change is one of the main drivers impacting biodiversity. The spatial and temporal distribution of temperature and precipitation as well as the increasing CO 2 concentration of the atmosphere are the main drivers substantially modifying the competitive success of species. Most information exists at the species level, and here studies to correlate future species distribution with climate change indicators prevail. Most information that concentrates on the species level is based on studies that correlate future species distribution with climate change indicators. However, the reliability of these findings is limited because only slowly adaptive processes are included into modelling frameworks (if any at all). Direct impacts of climate change are manifested by physiological processes in all organisms, but most information is available for plants only. Some plant species may benefit from increasing atmospheric CO 2 . Higher temperatures, especially in spring, might induce earlier budburst, which causes longer growing periods. Higher temperature and droughts, on the other hand, limit assimilation and growth. Changes in biodiversity at the ecosystem level are more difficult to capture, not the least because different scientific communities use different definitions. From a societal point of view, ecosystems provide vital services whose provision might change under climate change. While in some regions ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration might increase, in others they might decrease as a result of water limitations and heat stress. More integrated nature conservation strategies that combine the protection of specific species of common interest with minimizing land-use tradeoffs will increase. Research is needed to develop suitable strategies that ensure adaptive capacity at all biodiversity levels and satisfy human requirements.

Biodiversity conservation and public support for sustainable wildlife harvesting: A case study

If sustainable use of wildlife is to be adopted as a strategy for nature conservation, it is important that it be supported by the public. This paper examines public attitudes to and support for sustainable harvesting of wildlife by surveying a sample of the Australian public. Participants' attitudes to sustainable commercial harvesting of wildlife in general and to the possible sustainable commercial harvesting of 24 Australian animal species is evaluated. The relationship between respondents' support for the sustainable commercial harvesting of the species and the species' degree of endangerment is found to be inverse. Support for sustainable commercial harvesting is also inversely related to respondents' allocation of funds for the conservation of each of the species. In turn, this allocation of funds increased with the degree of endangerment of the species. Harvest was supported only for some abundant species. None of the species listed in the Red List received majority support for harvesting. This suggests that the public is more likely to prefer the regulatory approach of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) to conserving threatened species than the more market-oriented approach advocated in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Effects of landscape structure and land‐use intensity on similarity of plant and animal communities

ABSTRACTAim Species richness in itself is not always sufficient to evaluate land management strategies for nature conservation. The exchange of species between local communities may be affected by landscape structure and land‐use intensity. Thus, species turnover, and its inverse, community similarity, may be useful measures of landscape integrity from a diversity perspective.Location A European transect from France to Estonia.Methods We measured the similarity of plant, bird, wild bee, true bug, carabid beetle, hoverfly and spider communities sampled along gradients in landscape composition (e.g. total availability of semi‐natural habitat), landscape configuration (e.g. fragmentation) and land‐use intensity (e.g. pesticide loads).Results Total availability of semi‐natural habitats had little effect on community similarity, except for bird communities, which were more homogeneous in more natural landscapes. Bee communities, in contrast, were less similar in landscapes with higher percentages of semi‐natural habitats. Increased landscape fragmentation decreased similarity of true bug communities, while plant communities showed a nonlinear, U‐shaped response. More intense land use, specifically increased pesticide burden, led to a homogenization of bee, bug and spider communities within sites. In these cases, habitat fragmentation interacted with pesticide load. Hoverfly and carabid beetle community similarity was differentially affected by higher pesticide levels: for carabid beetles similarity decreased, while for hoverflies we observed a U‐shaped relationship.Main conclusions Our study demonstrates the effects of landscape composition, configuration and land‐use intensity on the similarity of communities. It indicates reduced exchange of species between communities in landscapes dominated by agricultural activities. Taxonomic groups differed in their responses to environmental drivers and using but one group as an indicator for ‘biodiversity’ as such would thus not be advisable.

Land Use Dynamics, Farmers' Preferences and Policy Implications in the Jinghe Watershed of Remote North-Western China

This paper investigates the dynamics of land use patterns, contributory issues, farmers' preferences and policy implications in the Jinghe watershed of remote north-western China. Landsat™ data (using GIS) and primary data from participatory rural appraisal – a method rarely applied in China – and household surveys using weighted indices were analysed. Proportions of land use and landscape indices were applied to analyse changes in land use patterns. It was found that land use patterns remain relatively stable in the watershed region where arable land and grassland predominate, a situation that has not changed structurally for 10–20 years. In villages, however, structural changes in landscape patterns occurred with transitions from predominantly arable land to forest and grass. High values for dominance and contagion indices were found in counties with relatively simple land use patterns or agricultural land use, while low values for dominance and contagion indices were associated with diversified land use involving agriculture, forest and grassland. Government intervention, market demand, personal considerations and growing environmental concerns are perceived by farmers as major factors leading to land use change. The local people prefer to grow food crops to ensure food security rather than to manage forest and grassland. This calls for a comprehensive natural resource conservation strategy, which should be based on building resource conservation into policy making; institutional reform with local participation; promotion of indigenous technology for resource conservation and management; and population control.

Selection and validation of reference sites in small river basins

Type-specific reference conditions that describe sites with no or only very minor anthropogenic disturbances are a basic requirement of the European Water Framework Directive. The reference condition approach implies a previous determination of criteria acceptable for the definition of near-natural stretches. In this paper, a methodology based on selection and validation procedures is applied to a Portuguese watershed to guide the identification of reference sites. The methodology consisted of three phases: (1) a preliminary site inspection through the use of maps, available data and an extensive screening field campaign that resulted in the selection of 52 potentially undisturbed small- and medium-sized rivers stretches, ranging from 43 to 1069 m in altitude, with catchment areas between 4 and 641 km2 and representing siliceous and calcareous riverbeds; (2) a detailed site selection based on ten pre-defined criteria involving physical/social/biological attributes that indicated catchment land use changes and alien vegetal riparian species as major human impacts; (3) a site validation procedure involving detailed investigation of benthic macroinvertebrate communities, riparian vegetation, in-stream habitat quality and chemical parameters that showed riparian wood-related problems as a major restriction to validate a stretch as a near-natural site. Only about 12% of all investigated river sites, accounting for 600 m of all 5200 m studied, could be considered as near-reference stretches or sites retaining essential natural functions. Selection and validation procedures can identify different sites as reference, which reinforces the need for applying both procedures. The results presented can help to accomplish the requirements of the EU – Water Framework Directive by selecting reference sites as the first step to establish biological reference conditions and, simultaneously, to form a basis for nature conservation strategies.

Putting the "And" Back in the Culture-Nature Debate: Integrated Cultural and Natural Heritage Protection

I. INTRODUCTION II. CULTURAL & NATURAL HERITAGE: AN OVERVIEW A. Cultural Heritage B. Natural Heritages C. Nature Conservation Strategies Worldwide D. The Links Between Cultural and Natural Heritage E. Characteristics of Sites of Overlapping Cultural & Natural Heritage III. The Present and Future of Integrated Cultural & Natural Heritage Management A. Challenges Posed to Protecting Cultural and Natural Heritage B. Existing Legal/Regulatory Efforts to Protect Cultural and Natural Heritage 1. Developed Countries a. The United States b. The European Union (1) England (a) National Parks (b) Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (c) Conservation Areas (2) Dartmoor National Park (a) The Dartmoor Local Plan (b) Local Plan Aims (c) Local Plan Landscapes c. Canada 2. Developing Countries a. China b. Brazil IV. CONCLUSION A. Why Integrate Cultural and Natural Heritage Protection? B. Bridging Boundaries for Mutual Gain I. INTRODUCTION Formal legal efforts to protect cultural and natural heritage are not a modern phenomenon. In the developed and developing worlds, regional, state, and local governments undertake efforts to protect their cultural heritage and their natural resources. Most cultural and natural resource protection regimes, however, have evolved independently of one another. This is only recently beginning to change. As scholars, regulators, and activists increasingly recognize the links and overlap between areas of cultural and natural heritage, they are beginning to come together to develop new regimes for joint cultural and environmental protection. These early efforts jointly to protect cultural and natural heritage vary significantly in character and success. These variations reflect a still vague and evolving understanding of the interplay between culture and nature, the relationship between public and private land ownership, and significant regional differences in existing legal regimes, economic development, and environmental agendas. Further, there is currently very little comprehensive research examining global efforts to develop heritage protection areas that integrate both cultural and natural resource conservation. There is even less research analyzing how relationships between land ownership and social conceptions of culture and nature impact the development of future cultural and natural heritage programs. The goal of this paper is to contribute to and encourage the development of innovative, interdisciplinary approaches for the protection, preservation, and enhancement of natural and cultural heritage areas. The second section of this paper examines traditional notions and regulatory regimes for cultural and natural heritage protection, and delves into the links between cultural and natural heritage. Section three analyzes existing cultural heritage and environmental/natural protection laws, and provides examples of joint cultural and natural heritage preservation efforts. In particular, section three considers how current and prospective joint cultural and natural heritage protection efforts in developed and developing countries contribute to the social and economic development of communities and regions, and advance the principles of sustainable development by strengthening the historical continuity of a place and its people, and by guiding development in ways consistent with the characteristics of these cultural and natural resources. Additionally, section three examines case studies in the United States, Europe, Canada, Brazil, and China to demonstrate the challenges and critical elements integral to developing innovative and sustainable cultural and natural heritage preservation schemes. …

Analysis of the effects of land use change on protected areas in the Philippines

Deforestation and forest degradation are the most important land use change processes in the Philippines. These processes are an important threat to the highly rated biodiversity of the country. Only a small fraction of the natural forest that once covered the country remains. In spite of different policies that aim to reduce logging recent commercial deforestation, illegal logging and agricultural expansion pose an important threat to the remaining forest areas. In this paper we discuss the role of (land use) modeling approaches for assessing the threats and trade-offs of protecting the designated nature areas. At the national level different scenarios of land use change and implementation of the protected area policy are evaluated and discussed based on a spatially explicit land use allocation model. For one of the main national parks, the Northern Sierra Madre Nature Park, a detailed analysis is presented based on in-depth knowledge of the region. The two modeling approaches discussed in this paper aim at different scales and provide complementary types of information to support the planning and management of nature conservation strategies. The combination of land use change analysis at different scales respects the hierarchical organization of the land use system and addresses different levels of protected area management. The results indicate that land use change models are useful tools to inform protected area management as long as the selection of the model approach is based on the research and policy questions at the appropriate scale.

Community structure and diversity of bryophytes and vascular plants in abandoned fen meadows

We examined effects of abandonment on species diversity and species composition by comparing 21 calcareous fen meadows in the pre-alpine zone of central and northeastern Switzerland. Meadows were divided into three classes of successional stages (mown: annually mown in late summer, young fallow: 4 –15 years, and old fallow: >15 years of abandonment). In each fen, we measured litter mass in four 20 cm20 cm plots, as well as (aboveground) biomass and species density (number of species per unit area) of bryophytes and vascular plants. Bryophyte biomass was reduced in abandoned fens, whereas litter mass and aboveground biomass of vascular plants increased. Species density of both taxonomic groups was lower in abandoned than in mown fens. Young and old successional stages were not different except for bryophytes, for which old successional stages had higher species density than young stages. We used litter mass and aboveground biomass of vascular plants as covariables in analyses of variance to reveal their effects on species density of both taxonomic groups. For bryophytes, litter mass was more important than vascular plant biomass in explaining variance of species density. This indicates severe effects of burying by litter on bryophyte species density. For species density of vascular plants, both vascular plant biomass and litter mass were of similar importance in explaining the decreased species density. Canonical correspondence analyses showed that abandonment also had an effect on species composition of both bryophytes and vascular plants. However, young and old successional stages were not different indicating fast initial changes after abandonment, but slow secondary succession afterwards. Furthermore, indicator species analysis showed that there was no establishment of new species after abandonment that might dramatically alter fen communities. Re-introduction of mowing as a nature conservation strategy may thus be very promising – even for old fallows.

Wilderness, Religion and Ecological Restoration in the Scottish Highlands

The efforts of nature conservation bodies to return parts of the Highlands to a ‘pristine’ state involve attempts to reduce both signs of human dwelling and the destructive impacts of animals introduced by wealthy landlords for sport and cash such as deer and sheep. The irony is that such restoration projects will still not achieve the levels of biodiversity that obtained before the Clearances when Gaels dwelt in what are now regarded as ecologically rich but threatened regions. Wilderness restoration projects reflect in some ways the modern romantic fetishisation of wild nature which finds its modern equivalent in the growing practice of wilderness therapy. Discussions amongst philosophers of wilderness, and ecological restoration, frequently neglect the dimension of the environmental exclusion of indigenous people, and so also tend to fetishise wilderness. Biblical accounts of wilderness restoration are strongly at variance with modern approaches when they suggest that the divine intent to restore desert to fertile land involves also the redemption of the poor, and of other species, from the greed and corruption of the wealthy. In this sense the land reform project of the new Scottish Parliament comes closer to a Biblical vision of wilderness restoration than traditional nature conservation strategies.

Structure of old Pinus sylvestris dominated forest stands along a geographic and human impact gradient in mid-boreal Fennoscandia

Stand structural characteristics were examined in old Pinus sylvestris dominated sites in three regions along a broad geographic and human impact gradient in mid-boreal Fennoscandia. The study regions were: 1) Häme in south-western Finland, with a long history of forest utilization, 2) Kuhmo in north-eastern Finland, with a more recent history of intensive forest utilization, and 3) Vienansalo in Russian Karelia, still characterized by a large near-natural forest landscape. Within each region the sampled sites were divided into three human impact classes: 1) near-natural stands, 2) stands selectively logged in the past, and 3) managed stands treated with thinnings. The near-natural and selectively logged stands in Häme and Kuhmo had a significantly higher Picea proportion compared to stands in Vienansalo. In comparison, the proportions of deciduous tree volumes were higher in near-natural stands in Vienansalo compared to near-natural stands in Häme. The pooled tree diameter distributions, both in near-natural and selectively logged stands, were descending whereas managed stands had a bimodal diameter distribution. Structural diversity characteristics such as broken trunks were most common in near-natural stands and in stands selectively logged in the past. The results demonstrate the higher structural complexity of near-natural stands and stands selectively logged in the past compared to managed stands, and highlight that old near-natural stands and stands selectively logged in the past vary widely in their structures. This obviously reflects both their natural variability but also various combinations of pre-industrial land use and human impact on fire disturbance. These factors need to be acknowledged when using “natural” forest structures as a reference in developing strategies for forest management, restoration and nature conservation.