Strain Shadows Research Articles

Interaction between deformation and magma extraction in migmatites: Examples from Kangaroo Island, South Australia

Migmatite terranes are structurally complex because of strong rheological contrast between layers with different melt contents and because of magma migration leading to irregular volume changes. Migmatite deformation is intimately linked with magma extraction and the origin of granitoids. We investigate here the relationships between evolving deformation and magma extraction in migmatites formed during the ca. 500 Ma Delamerian orogeny, exposed on Kangaroo Island, South Australia. Here, several phases of deformation occurred in the presence of melt. During an early upright, noncylindrical folding event, magma was channeled toward the hinge zones of antiforms. Funnel-shaped networks of leucosomes formed a root zone that linked up toward a central axial planar channel, forming the main magma extraction paths during folding. Extraction was associated with fold limb collapse, and antiformal hinge disruption by magma accumulation and transfer. During a later deformation phase, melt-rich diatexites were deformed, and schollen, blocks or rafts of source rock, were disaggregated into smaller blocks and schlieren, and these were deformed into asymmetric, sigmoidal shapes indicative of dextral shearing flow. During flow, magma accumulated preferentially along shear planes, indicating a dilatational component during shearing (transtension) and in strain shadows of schollen. At the waning stages of deformation, magma extraction from these diatexites gave rise to N-trending, steeply dipping, funnel-shaped channels not associated with any externally imposed deformational feature. The funnel shape of these structures indicates the direction of magma flow. Structures developed during this phase are comparable with those formed during dewatering of soft sediments. Despite a high degree of complexity, magma migration and extraction features record distinct responses to the evolving deformation that can be used to understand deformation, and the nature and direction of magma extraction. The oldest and youngest magmatic rocks from migmatites were dated by U-Pb SHRIMP (sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe) dating techniques. Both reveal a continuous age spread between ca. 495 and 465 Ma. The age range is interpreted to indicate the duration of anatexis (order of 30 m.y.), with the older ages marking onset of monazite growth as the system approached peak metamorphism and younger ages representing final growth close to the solidus during cooling.

The effects of Dissolution–Precipitation Creep on quartz fabrics within the Purgatory Conglomerate, Rhode Island

Quartz Crystallographic Preferred Orientation (CPO) patterns are most commonly a result of deformation by dislocation creep. We investigated whether Dissolution–Precipitation Creep (DPC), a process that occurs at lower differential stresses and temperatures, may result in CPO in quartz. The Purgatory Conglomerate is part of the SE Narragansett basin where strain intensity increases from west to east and is associated with top-to-the-west transport and folding during the Alleghanian orogeny. Within the Purgatory Conglomerate, DPC led to quartz dissolution along cobble surfaces perpendicular to the shortening direction, and quartz precipitation in overgrowths at the ends of the cobbles (strain shadows), parallel to the maximum extension direction. Quartz c-axis orientations as revealed by Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) methods were random in all analyzed domains within the cobbles and strain shadows irrespective of the intensity of strain or metamorphic grade of the sample. Quartz dissolution probably occurred exclusively along the cobbles' margins, leaving the remaining grains unaffected by DPC. The fact that quartz precipitated in random orientations may indicate that the strain shadows were regions of little or no differential stress.

Low stress deformation of garnet by incongruent dissolution precipitation creep

Microstructures indicating incongruent dissolution precipitation creep of garnet in eclogite-facies graphitic micaschist (Tauern window, Eastern Alps) are investigated. Garnet dissolution is observed where garnet poikiloblasts grown at eclogite facies metamorphism approached each other as a consequence of progressive deformation during exhumation, with estimated P-T-conditions between 570 °C, 1.7 GPa and 470 °C, 0.9 GPa. The poikiloblasts are separated by a dissolution seam and flanked by strain shadows filled with quartz, white mica, and chlorite; there is no evidence for crystal plastic deformation of garnet. Two cases are investigated: (A) stylolitic contact zone, (B) smooth contact zone. In both cases, internal fabrics of the poikiloblasts and concentric chemical zoning are truncated. Material previously forming inclusions in the garnet poikiloblasts is now passively enriched in a dissolution seam, the original microstructure of fine-grained mica–graphite aggregates remaining preserved. Though microstructures suggest that garnet dissolution was driven by local stress concentration, the level of differential stress remained too low for plastic deformation of the fine-grained white mica-graphite aggregates set free from the stress supporting garnet. Incongruent dissolution precipitation creep appears to be a particularly effective deformation mechanism at low stress in a subduction channel.

Matrix deformation mechanisms in HP-LT tectonic mélanges — Microstructural record of jadeite blueschist from the Franciscan Complex, California

Exhumed high pressure–low temperature metamorphic mélanges of tectonic origin are believed to reflect high strain accumulated in large scale interplate shear zones during subduction. Rigid blocks of widely varying size are embedded in a weak matrix, which takes up the deformation and controls the rheology of the composite. The microfabrics of a highly deformed jadeite-blueschist from the Franciscan Complex, California, are investigated to help understand deformation mechanisms at depth. The specimen shows a transposed foliation with dismembered fold hinges and boudinage structures. Several generations of open fractures have been sealed to become veins at high-pressure metamorphic conditions. The shape of these veins, frequently restricted to specific layers, indicates distributed host rock deformation during and after sealing. Small cracks in jadeite and lawsonite are healed, with tiny quartz inclusions aligned along the former fracture surface. Large jadeite porphyroblasts show strain caps and strain shadows. Open fractures are sealed by quartz and new jadeite epitactically grown on the broken host. Monophase glaucophane aggregates consist of undeformed needles with a diameter between 0.1 and 2μm, grown after formation of isoclinal folds. Only quartz microfabrics indicate some stage of crystal-plastic deformation, followed by annealing and grain growth. Aragonite in the latest vein generation shows retrogression to calcite along its rims. The entire deformation happened under HP-LT metamorphic conditions in the stability field of jadeite and quartz, at temperatures between 300 and 450°C and pressures exceeding 1–1.4GPa. The microfabrics indicate that dissolution precipitation creep was the predominant deformation mechanism, accompanied by brittle failure and vein formation at quasi-lithostatic pore fluid pressure. This indicates low flow strength and, combined with high strain rates expected for localized deformation between the plates, a very low viscosity of material in the interplate shear zone at a depth>30–45km.

Three-dimensional pore networks and transport properties of a shale gas formation determined from focused ion beam serial imaging

Three-dimensional pore network reconstructions of mudstone properties are made using dual focused ion beam-scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM). Samples of Jurassic Haynesville Formation mudstone are examined with FIB-SEM and image analysis to determine pore properties, topology, and tortuosity. Resolvable pore morphologies (>~10 nm) include large slit-like pores between clay aggregates and smaller pores in strain shadows surrounding larger clastic grains. Mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) data suggest a dominant 1–10 nm or less size of pores barely resolvable by FIB-SEM imaging. Computational fluid dynamics modelling is used to calculate single phase permeability of the larger pore networks on the order of a few nanodarcys (which compare favourably with core-scale permeability tests). This suggests a pore hierarchy wherein permeability may be limited by connected networks of inter-aggregate pores larger than about 20 nm, while MICP results reflect smaller connected networks of pores residing in the clay matrix. [Received: May 12, 2011; Accepted: September 14, 2011]

Dissolution precipitation creep versus crystalline plasticity in high-pressure metamorphic serpentinites

Abstract Serpentinite is widely assumed to constitute weak material in subduction zones and to play an essential role for the development of a subduction channel. Information on deformation mechanisms and appropriate rheological models to describe these large-scale flow processes can only be obtained from natural serpentinites exhumed from ancient subduction zones. We examine the microstructural record of HP-metamorphic ( P c. 2±0.5 GPa, T c. 550±50 °C) serpentinites exposed in the Zermatt–Saas zone, Western Alps, using optical and scanning electron microscopy with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The schistose and compositionally layered rocks show pervasive small-scale folding. There is no evidence for any significant deformation by dislocation creep. Instead, the microfabrics including strain shadows and crenulation cleavage indicate that high strain is accumulated by dissolution precipitation creep. In terms of rheology, this suggests Newtonian behaviour and a low viscosity for the long-term flow of serpentinites in deeper levels of subduction zones. This does not preclude dislocation creep and a power law rheology at higher stress levels, as realized at local sites of stress concentration and transient episodes of post-seismic creep.

Reaction progress and timing of retrogression of eclogite-facies rocks, Danmarkshavn, North-East Greenland Caledonides

Eclogites are commonly preserved in the cores of mafic lenses that are surrounded by amphibolite-facies margins. The amphibolites are produced on the retrograde path with the addition of fluid to an otherwise anhydrous assemblage; the fluids are expected to enhance zircon growth. We studied two high-pressure (H P ) mafic/ultramafic lenses from the North-East Greenland eclogite province (a boudinaged garnet-clinopyroxenite and a garnet-websterite) in order to establish the timing of retrogression. We focused on the garnet-clinopyroxenite outcrop to establish the role of the fluid during retrograde metamorphism and to determine the progress of the metamorphic reactions that define the transformation of the H P assemblage to amphibolite. We collected three samples representing different degrees of amphibolitisation, and used them to determine the reaction progress between the different retrograde stages. Reactions (1) and (2) show increasing fluid availability with increasing retrogression: \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \[3.33 Cpx + 0.56 Grt + 0.105 Plag + 1.17 H_{2}O = 1.17 Amp\] \end{document}(1) \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \[2.40 Cpx + 1.99 Grt + 6.33 Qtz + 1.06 Rt + 2.02 H_{2}O = 2.02 Amp + 0.59 Plag + 0.63 Ilm\] \end{document}(2) We determined U-Pb SHRIMP ages and collected zircon trace-element data on metamorphic rims of zircons for both lithologies, from both the H P samples and the surrounding amphibolite rims. These ages and trace elements, combined with chronological and structural data previously published, allow us to interpret the retrograde path for these rocks and the Danmarkshavn area in general. The age of the metamorphic zircon is the same in the center and at the margin of the mafic and ultramafic pods, with ages spanning between 390 and 360 Ma and younger ages (about 330–340 Ma) for the garnet-clinopyroxenite. The oldest Paleozoic ages in the mafic samples likely record the timing of H P metamorphism or initial retrogression. Pegmatite emplacement into strain shadows between mafic boudins was ongoing at 375 Ma. Fluid circulation accompanying deformation and pegmatite emplacement is recorded by the 375 Ma zircon growth in the garnet-websterite. Additional zircon growth is observed both in the garnet-clinopyroxenite and garnet-websterite as well as in a boudin-neck pegmatite at ca . 360 Ma. Continued zircon growth at 340, 330, and 315 Ma is recorded in the garnet-clinopyroxenite, the adjacent boudin-neck pegmatite and the pegmatite dike that cross-cuts amphibolite-facies structural fabrics. All of the younger episodes of zircon growth are interpreted to reflect fluid influx linked to continued retrograde metamorphism, deformation, and pegmatite emplacement in the Carboniferous.

Granite-cored domes and gold mineralisation: Architectural and geodynamic controls around the Archaean Scotia-Kanowna Dome, Kalgoorlie Terrane, Western Australia

Granite-cored domes are associated with many of the larger gold deposits of the Archaean Eastern Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia. The Scotia-Kanowna Dome is eroded to sufficiently deep levels to provide insights into the role granite-cored domes play in controlling fluid flow and gold deposition. At the centre of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome is a granite batholith, which is surrounded by outward-dipping greenstone belts and associated shear zones. This upper-crustal dome sits above mid-crustal domes, providing a series of stacked geometries favourable to focussed fluid flow. A number of small- to medium-sized gold deposits occur on the limbs and the centre of the dome, and the world-class Kanowna Belle gold mine occurs on the nose of the dome. At least three separate gold mineralising events are defined, each of regional significance, which can be correlated with other well known gold deposits of the Eastern Yilgarn Craton. The palaeostress across this region was dominated by both maximum contractional and extensional vectors oriented perpendicular to the north-northwest trending grain. The resultant strain is seen in the architecture of the Scotia-Kanowna Dome, with its margins and associated shear zones controlling the distribution of stratigraphy, which is relatively linear and parallel to the margin. Throughout most of the tectonic history, the flanking shear zones were high-strain domains that recorded multiple stages of contraction, with thrust and mostly sinistral strike-slip shear kinematics. In contrast, the dome nose region was a relatively low-strain domain as it was located in the strain shadow of the regional contractional events. For example, the early extensional record has been preserved at the nose, with late-stage basins formed in the hangingwall to the extensional faults, adding to the stratigraphic complexity of the local region. These late basins also may have contributed to the fluid budget. In contrast, along the flanks of the domes there is no record of these late basins or the extensional faults that controlled their deposition. The architecture of the dome played an important role in controlling mineralisation during a significant deviation in the maximum contractional stress vector to an east-southeast-west-southwest orientation. At this time, basins in the nose region underwent inversion, with thrusting to the north and northwest. Shortening was accommodated along the dome flanks by sinistral strike-slip shearing, which was relatively free to move due to the mostly linear stratigraphy, combined with limited anisotropy and perturbations along the flank. However, the stratigraphic and geometrical complexity around the dome nose resulted in localised maximum dilation and gold deposition at this time. The dome nose area was also a favoured locus for gold-enriched, dominantly Mafic-type magmas, which are seen as the extensive porphyry swarms in the region. These felsic-intermediate rocks also may have contributed to the complex fluid budget and are considered as indicators of particular fertility for gold. They may have been the primary source for much of the metal endowment. The architecture of granite-cored domes has played a critical role in focussing magma as well as mineralising fluids into regions of maximum dilation. They did this by virtue of their inherent competence, and by influencing the position and geometry of shear zones (fluid pathways) and hence distribution of stratigraphy (depositional sites) across the region. The Scotia-Kanowna Dome is a good example of this effect, and inferences can be made in favour of similar controls by concealed domes, such as beneath Kalgoorlie.

Deformation partitioning, foliation successions and their significance for orogenesis: hiding lengthy deformation histories in mylonites

Abstract Although orogenesis commonly lasts 100 million years, a maximum of three foliations are usually preserved within any outcrop. They record little of the total history due to the effects of preferential partitioning of progressive shearing along S 0 . Such reactivation eventually destroys or rotates multiple successive foliations into parallelism with any layering that is present. Plate motion subjects a collisional orogen to spatially partitioned, episodic, but non-stop deformation. The bulk forces operating are horizontal and intermittently vertical (associated with gravitational load due to crustal thickening) forming sub-vertical and sub-horizontal foliations. These orientations are preserved in the strain shadows of anything competent that hinders reactivation of the compositional layering. Deformation partitioning results in portions of rock remaining unaffected for many events. Gravitational collapse of over-thickened orogen cores leads to significant extrusion in orogen rims and a dominance of sub-horizontal foliations in the latter and episodically continues throughout orogenesis. Reactivation causes decrenulation and/or rotation of foliations into parallelism with S 0 , destroying evidence that multiple sub-vertical and sub-horizontal foliations have developed except where preserved as inclusion trails in porphyroblasts and multiply truncated foliations in mylonites. However, the same processes operate in both the cores of orogens and ductile portions of their margins.

Cretaceous metamorphism in the Austroalpine Matsch Unit (Eastern Alps): The interrelation between deformation and chemical equilibration processes

In the polymetamorphic Austroalpine Matsch Unit (European Eastern Alps) Cretaceous upper greenschist facies metamorphism overprinted Variscan and Permian magmatic and metamorphic assemblages. Mineral compositional and (micro-)structural data of metapelites and metapegmatites document different mechanisms of interrelated deformation and (re-)equilibration during Cretaceous overprinting: i) Microfractures in relic garnet represented pathways for material transport, and thus established material exchange between intragranular domains and the matrix. Major element equilibration by fast diffusion along microfractures contrasts with limited volume diffusion in adjacent host garnet. ii) Syn-tectonic breakdown of staurolite initially to paragonite, then chloritoid allows correlating reaction progress with the formation of different fracture sets. iii) Syn-tectonic mineral growth with shape-preferred orientation in foliation domains contrasts with radial growth in microlithons and strain shadows of the mylonitic foliation. iv) Syn-tectonic unmixing of pre-existing oligoclase (an14–16) produced fine-grained aggregates of two supposedly coexisting plagioclase-phases (an3–6 and an20–25) in strain shadows of the oligoclase-clasts. v) Pre-existing deformation-induced heterogeneities in the spatial distribution of phases and their preferred orientation influence the kinetics of phase equilibration. Understanding the mechanisms of the mutual interrelation between deformation and phase equilibration is a prerequisite for deducing PT-constraints from strained metamorphic rocks. New garnet—whole rock Sm-Nd data from metapegmatites indicate their emplacement at 263–280 Ma and provide an important age constraint on the interrelated deformation and re-equilibration processes.

Growth, behavior, and textural sector zoning of biotite porphyroblasts during regional metamorphism and the implications for interpretation of inclusion trails: Insights from the Pequop Mountains and Wood Hills, Nevada, USA

Metapelites in the Pequop Mountains and Wood Hills, Nevada, contain biotite porphyroblasts that are part of a Barrovian metamorphic sequence that formed in response to tectonic burial. Inclusion trails and patterns in these biotite porphyroblasts provide a remarkable record of their growth and behavior in this environment. Accompanied by a strong component of coaxial strain, the porphyroblasts underwent a constructive phase that involved growth characterized by textural sector zoning followed by a destructive phase involving fracturing, rotation, and minor residual growth. Textural sector zoning is the result of uninhibited syntectonic growth in all directions. Growth along porphyroblast margins that parallel foliation involved incorporation of inclusions, whereas growth along margins perpendicular to foliation involved syntaxial precipitation of biotite in dilating strain shadows, which generally precluded development of inclusions. This growth mechanism partially accommodated strain and produced porphyroblasts with a characteristic hourglass-shaped included core bounded by zones of relatively unincluded biotite. Cessation of growth of biotite triggered onset of the destructive phase and ultimately resulted in the transference of some strain to the porphyroblasts and the filling of strain shadows with mostly quartz instead of biotite. Residual growth of biotite in the destructive phase was largely restricted to strain shadows and extension fractures. Progression through the constructive and destructive phases results in production of inclusion trails with a diversity of dip angles, dip directions, and trail geometries and patterns. Therefore, caution must be used when inferring strain histories on the basis of inclusion trails. Furthermore, although textural sector zoning has been reported in a variety of other porphyroblast species, where it is thought to develop in a state of hydrostatic stress in pretectonic or intertectonic porphyroblasts, zoning in biotite is significant in that it is strain induced and hence an indicator of syntectonic growth.

New 40Ar– 39Ar age constraints on the deformation along the Machaoying fault zone: Implications for Early Cambrian tectonism in the North China Craton

The Machaoying fault zone extends along the southern margin of the North China Craton (NCC) and controlled the regional structures and hydrothermal mineral systems in this area. The fault underwent at least two major deformational phases, as revealed by macro- and micro-structural observations from a well-developed segment of the fault in the Hongzhuang–Baitu area, located south of the Xiong'er Mountains. Early ductile deformation is characterized by thrusting from north to south, which was subsequently overprinted by late brittle faulting. Syntectonic strain shadows of biotite are preserved around rotated porphyroclasts of quartz amygdales in mylonite. The biotite yields a 40Ar– 39Ar plateau age of 524.9 ± 1.9 Ma, which is interpreted as the time of regional thrusting along the Machaoying fault zone. The thrusting may be temporally correlated with an Early Cambrian discontinuity in sedimentation observed in the rocks sequences of the NCC, suggesting a compressional regime in this area and a craton-wide tectonic event. Many 540–500 Ma tectonic events have been previously identified in the Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun Orogenic Belt of central China and in massifs in northeastern China, both of which surround the NCC, and some of these were interpreted to be associated with assembly of Gondwana. However, paleomagnetic data indicate that the NCC was unlikely to have been connected with Gondwana in the Early Cambrian and thus our new biotite date cannot record deformation along the Gondwanan margin. Dating of K-feldspar from a quartz–K-feldspar vein formed along one of the brittle faults of the Machaoying fault zone yields a much younger 40Ar– 39Ar plateau age of 119.5 ± 0.7 Ma. This is a minimum age for the brittle deformation along the southern margin of the NCC, which also overlaps the age of widespread gold and molybdenum mineralization in the region.

Cyrenaican “shock absorber” and associated inversion strain shadow in the collision zone of northeast Africa

Far-field compressional stresses resulting from arc collisions with the northeast coast of Africa-Arabia propagated across the African plate in the Santonian (ca. 84 Ma), and later similar pulses occurred through much of the Cenozoic. Waves of inversion-related features including folds, thrusts, and igneous activity developed during the compressional events. Structures generated were uneven in intensity and distribution, and were commonly concentrated in existing rifts. Because of the irregular shapes of the North African continental margin and associated inboard basins, Cyrenaica underwent the most severe shortening, although deformation extended eastward from Libya to the Levant. Areas south and southeast of Cyrenaica (the Sirt Basin and the far Western Desert of Egypt) underwent very little shortening because they occupied a regional strain shadow. The eastern region of the Western Desert and Sinai, which were not sheltered by the stress-absorbing Cyrenaica inversion, recorded strong compressional deformation synchronous with that in Cyrenaica. As closure of the Mediterranean continues, Cyrenaica will become an indenter comparable to those of other orogenic belts. The detailed tectonic evolution of individual northeast African basins has depended on their positions in relation to the Cyrenaican strain shadow. No single subsidence and paleostress history reflects the complete regional development of the converging Mediterranean–North African margin.

Two-stage formation of kaolinite in shear-zone slates, southern Iberian Massif, SE Spain

AbstractKaolinite aggregates are the major alteration product in the strongly deformed areas of a shear zone developed in contact-metamorphosed slates from the Southern Iberian Massif near Jaén (SE Spain). Muscovite and Fe-rich chlorite in strain shadows of broken andalusite crystals were observed in slates from less deformed areas. The presence of phyllosilicate packets nearly perpendicular to each other and veinlets parallel to {110} of andalusite reveal the importance of cleavage-controlled fracturing of andalusite to the mineral reactions. The compositional similarity between kaolinite and andalusite suggests a direct transformation of andalusite to kaolinite in the strongly altered area. The absence of clear preferred orientation of phyllosilicates relative to andalusite, and the compositional differences of andalusite with muscovite and chlorite from the less altered samples, indicate andalusite dissolution and chlorite-muscovite precipitation during a first mineral-growth stage. Muscovite-kaolinite and chlorite-kaolinite intergrowths indicate a later retrograde replacement stage.

Seismic strain in the Altai-Sayan active seismic area and elements of collisional geodynamics

Seismic strain estimated from about 900 earthquake mechanisms in the Altai-Sayan area indicates that the area evolves mainly under N-S compression caused by the India-Eurasia collision. Plastic flow in the mountains of the western and central Altai-Sayan area is controlled by convergence of aseismic rigid blocks, including the Dzungarian microplate, the Minusa basin, the Tuva basin, Uvs Nuur and other basins in the region of Great Lakes in Mongolia. Earthquake rupture follows the existing fault pattern. The pattern of rigid blocks and mountain ranges correlates well with upper mantle thermal heterogeneity as imaged by seismic tomography. Earthquake mechanisms in the presence of plate convergence depend on different factors. Slip geometry depends on focal depth at a given geodynamic regime, and the latter, in terms of the seismic process, is controlled by lateral (W-E) constraint. Reverse-slip earthquakes most often originate at shallow depths in regions of constrained compression, such as the Tien Shan, and strike slip is the dominant mechanism under non-constrained and moderately constrained compression. The direction of slip is governed by the parallel component of convergence and by the fault pattern. In regions of strain shadow, slip occurs mostly on normal planes, and shallow earthquakes have strike-slip mechanisms. The crust in the collisional region is divided into systems of rigid and plastic blocks (rheological structure) and of fault blocks (fault-block structure). The two types of systems coexist and determine the generally similar but specifically different features of local mass transfer.

The Tianger (Bingdaban) shear zone hosted gold deposit, west Tianshan, NW China: Petrographic and geochemical characteristics

The Wangfeng–Tianger–Saridala ore district consists of over 20 orebodies with total proven gold reserves exceeding 15 tonnes. The district is located on the EW-striking Tianger (Bingdaban) shear zone in west Tianshan Mountains, northwest China. The lensoid orebodies are distributed along the shear zone in a region about 25 km in length and 1 km in width. Enhanced fluid flow and fracturing controlled location and orientation of mineralized zones during deformation along narrow shear bands oriented oblique to the overall shear zone margins. Fabrics in fractures and strain shadow overgrowths generally plunge steeply, parallel to the lineation in the surrounding cataclasite matrix consisting of new grains of quartz and minor amounts of micas. Native gold occurs in mylonitized granites or mylonitized sulfide–mica–quartz veins. Gold grade is closely related with the occurrence of sulfide–quartz veins. Pyrite and pyrrhotite in gold-bearing sulfide–quartz veins contain inclusions of native gold. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) distribution patterns for pyrite from the orebodies show light REE enrichments and negative Eu anomalies. Relationships between gold contents and Th/U, Zr/Hf and (La/Yb) N values for pyrites imply that gold-rich pyrites are different from gold-poor pyrites, thus indicate that the pyrites in the orebodies have a different origin compared with those in wall rocks. A Rb–Sr isochron for the mylonitized Au-bearing quartz veins indicates an age of 224 ± 14 Ma with an initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratio of 0.7294 ± 0.0089 (MSWD = 1.1). This age is conformed by 40Ar/ 39Ar dating on muscovites (220.9 to 222.5 Ma), which is interpreted as the age of ore-formation in the Tianger deposit. High initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios (0.7294), high δ 34S values (+ 11.2 to + 16.5‰), low δ 18O H2O values (1.67 to 3.07‰) and low δD values (− 84 to − 104‰) indicate that the ore-forming fluid was unrelated to any magmatic process.

Intrusion mechanisms in a turbidite sequence: the Voetspoor and Doros plutons in NW Namibia

Two syntectonic plutons of Cambrian age intruded Neoproterozoic metaturbidites in Namibia at the junction of the NS trending Kaoko and EW trending Damara belts. Sinistral transpression in the Kaoko Belt produced km-scale upright D1 folds overprinted by minor D2 folds. D3 is associated with N–S shortening in the Damara Belt. The plutons show two main pulses of intrusion: hornblende syenite intruded late during D1 or during D2 and biotite granite during D3. Each tectonic event produced a strain shadow defined by the shape of folds and the foliation trend around the plutons. The internal igneous fabric and the arrangement of wall rock xenoliths that locally make up 50% of the intrusion mass suggest that the plutons have a disk or wedge shape. A marginal shear zone indicates that one of the syenite intrusions descended during emplacement with respect to the wall rock. Emplacement is therefore inferred to be at least partly accommodated by descent of the intrusion floor. The biotite granite intruded into mega-strain shadows and tension gashes alongside and in the syenite during D3. The plutons show evidence of sinistral solid state rotation with respect to the wall rocks in response to D1–D2 transpression.

Ductile deformation of garnet in mylonitic gneisses from the Münchberg Massif (Germany)

Mylonitic gneisses from the Münchberg Massif contain single grains (type I) and polycrystalline aggregates (type II) of garnet displaying a distinct elongation parallel to a macroscopic lineation which is interpreted as the result of ductile deformation. Lattice-preferred orientations of quartz (textures) symmetrical to the macroscopic foliation and lineation and the lack of rotational microfabrics indicate that the bulk deformation was pure shear at least during the latest strain increments. Garnet textures measured by EBSD together with microprobe analyses demonstrate that these two structural types of garnet can be related to two different processes of ductile deformation: (1) For the single grains stretching can be attributed to diffusion creep along grain boundary zones (Coble creep). The related mass transfer is indicated by the fact that primary growth zones are cut off at the long faces of the grains while the related strain shadow domains do not show comparable chemical zoning. Pressure solution and precipitation suitable to produce similar structures can be largely ruled out because retrogressive reactions pointing to the presence of free hydrous fluids are missing. (2) For the polycrystalline garnet aggregates consisting of cores grading into fine-grained mantles, dislocation creep and associated rotation recrystallization can be assumed. Continuous lattice rotation from the core to the outer polycrystalline rim allow a determination of the related dominant slip systems which are {100}<010> and equivalent systems according to the cubic lattice symmetry. The same holds for garnets which appear to be completely recrystallized. For this type of fine-grained aggregates an alternative nucleation model is discussed. Due to penetrative dislocation glide in connection with short range diffusion and the resulting lattice rotation, primary growth zones are strongly disturbed. Since for the considered rock unit of the Münchberg Massif peak metamorphic temperatures between 630 and 670 °C can be assumed, this study clearly demonstrates that the inferred processes of ductile garnet deformation can occur not only in HT regimes as often suggested in the literature even if embedded within a matrix of “low-strength” minerals like quartz, feldspars and micas.

Magma ponding in the Karakoram shear zone, Ladakh, NW India

Granitic melt migration and pluton emplacement are commonly closely associated with transcurrent shear zones. The processes that link granites to shear zones are not yet fully understood. The dextraltranspressive Karakoram shear zone in Ladakh, NW India, exposes anatectic rocks where synkinematic melt migration and ponding at kilometer scale were controlled by competency contrasts. Metasedimentary rocks and a dominantly granodioritic calcalkaline intrusion underwent fl uid-present partial melting at upper-amphibolite facies to produce leucogranite sheets and irregular intrusive masses dated at 21–14 Ma. Leucogranitic magmas ponded in the lowpressure strain shadow of the competent grano dioritic calc-alkaline pluton, giving rise to (a) migmatitic rocks that are pervaded by irregular leucogranite intrusions at a scale of meters or tens of meters, and (b) the growth of the Tangtse pluton, a kilometer-scale sheeted complex. Thus, magmas accumulated during shearing and anatexis in a low-pressure strain shadow within the Karakoram shear zone. This magma provided a readily available magma source that could have been tapped to feed larger plutons at shallower levels by modifi cations in the pressure distribution accompanying changes in shear zone geometry and kinematics. We conclude that shear zones tapping anatectic regions act as magma pumps, creating and destroying magma traps at depth as they evolve, and leading to incremental magma addition to upper-crustal plutons.

Formation of elliptical garnet in a metapelitic enclave by melt‐assisted dissolution and reprecipitation

AbstractMetapelitic residual enclaves in the Neogene Volcanic Province of SE Spain are residues left after melt extraction. Glass (quenched melt) of granitic composition occurs as inclusions in most minerals and as intergranular pockets. The most common enclave types show one stage of garnet growth that is interpreted to have occurred at the same time as glass production. Some of these show a well‐developed foliation outlined by fibrolite, biotite, graphite and glass, which wraps around elongate garnet crystals that have aspect ratios up to 10:1. Based on microstructures and chemistry, the garnet within these rocks shows clear core and mantle structure. The core has an average composition of Alm76–Prp08–Sps14–Grs03 and contains primary inclusions of biotite and melt, trapped during garnet growth. A thin (c. 100 μm), irregular mantle overgrows the garnet core, enclosing oriented fibrolite inclusions in strain caps, and biotite in strain shadows. In places, the overgrowths form skeletal elongated arms, which extend parallel to the foliation. The garnet mantle contains less Mn and higher XMg, but both core and mantle display flat Mn profiles, the contact being a sharp break. Ternary feldspar and Grt–Bt thermometry yield temperatures in the range 800–900 °C, with no systematic differences among the different microstructural domains of elliptical garnet. Based on the observed intracrystalline microstructures, the high amount of melt extraction in the rock by flattening component strain and the chemical zoning of garnet, the formation of elliptical garnet is modelled by a multistage sequence. This involves pressure solution and reprecipitation of the core, followed by post‐kinematic, partly mimetic growth of the garnet mantle.