Strain Limit Research Articles

Vertical-Structure Overcomes the Strain Limit of Stretchable Organic Electrochemical Transistors.

Intrinsically stretchable organic electrochemical transistors (IS-OECTs), utilizing organic mixed ionic-electronic conductors (OMIECs) as their channel materials, have drawn great attention recently because of their potential to enable seamless integration between bioelectronic devices and living systems. However, the fabrication of IS-OECTs presents challenges due to the limited availability of OMIEC materials that possess the desired combination of mechanical and electrical properties. In this work, 1) we report the first successful fabrication of a vertical intrinsically stretchable OECT (VIS-OECT), achieved by using elastoadhesive electrodes; 2) we experimentally provedthat vertical architecture can push the strain limit of an IS-OECT from 20% to 50%; and 3) the above finding introduces an unconventional design concept: the strain limit of an IS-OECT can surpass the intrinsic stretchability of the constituent OMIECs by employing vertical structure.

Enhancing thermal stability of Nb nanowires in a NiTiFe matrix via texture engineering

Metallic nanowires, renowned for their high strength and large elastic strain limits, have shown significant potential in rendering extraordinary structural and functional properties in composites. However, their integrity at high temperatures is often compromised due to fragmentation and spheroidization, processes driven by excess interfacial energy. Here, we demonstrate in a NiTiFe/Nb nanocomposite that the fragmentation and spheroidization of Nb nanowires can be significantly suppressed by tailoring the interfacial crystallographic orientation relationship between the nanowires and the matrix. By doping Fe into NiTi, we inhibit the typical deformation-induced amorphization of the NiTi-based matrix during severe deformation processing. The common (111)NiTi//(110)Nb texture is inherently suppressed and (110)NiTiFe//(110)Nb texture is formed instead. Such a change in texture allows Nb nanowires to retain their integrity up to 700 °C in the NiTiFe matrix, in contrast to the 550 °C in the counterparts. Simulation results indicate that the enhanced thermal stability of Nb nanowires is attributed to the reduced interfacial energy between (110)NiTiFe and (110)Nb. Additionally, Fe doping elevates the migration energy barrier for Nb diffusion, imposing further resistance to fragmentation and spheroidization.

Research and Application of Thermally Activated Gel for Control of Lost Circulations

Summary Thermally activated gel (TAG) for control of lost circulations was evaluated, which is based on acrylamide (AM) and N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP) copolymers crosslinked by polyethyleneimine (PEI). Viscoelasticity, pumpable time, breakthrough pressures, thermal tolerance, and fluid compatibility were tested in this paper, and then field applications in Missan Oilfield, Iraq, were introduced. Laboratory results showed that the strain limit in the linear viscoelastic region was 169% and storage modulus was 870 Pa. Pumpable time of TAG varies with pH values, so pumpable time can be controlled above 60 minutes by adjusting pH values in the temperature ranges of 100°C to 140°C. Breakthrough pressures were tested in 5-mm (inner diameter) and 10-mm (inner diameter) simulating pipes.The breakthrough pressure gradients were 1.172 psi/cm and 1.200 psi/cm at 0.5 mL/min and 1.0 mL/min, respectively, for 10-mm simulating pipes, 1.872 psi/cm and 2.200 psi/cm for 5-mm simulating pipes. TAG maintained morphologies completely and dehydrated slightly after 30 days of aging at 140°C, transformed into a degraded and low-viscosity fluid after 45 days of aging. Tests proved that invasions of inorganic electrolytes, drilling fluid additives, and drilling fluids can lengthen the pumpable time of TAG, so flash settings due to invasions could not occur. Applications in Missan Oilfield verified the performances of TAG mentioned above.

Shear viscoelastic properties of human orbital fat.

The shear viscoelastic behavior of eye's supporting orbital fat is unstudied in humans, yet is important during and after rapid movement. This investigation quantified viscoelastic characteristics of human orbital fat in constitutive form suitable for numerical simulation. Fresh human orbital fat was harvested postmortem from 6 male and 7 female donors of average age 78±13years. Fat samples were trimmed to disks of 20±3.0 (standard deviation) mm average diameter and 2.1±0.2mm thickness. In 8 samples each, the following four testing protocols were performed: strain sweep from 0.0015 to 50% at 1Hz; viscometry at 0.1s-1 shear rate; stress relaxation at physiological temperature; and frequency sweep from 0.159 to 15.9Hz at 0.5% strain to validate the Prony series parameters fitting stress relaxation behavior. Orbital fat exhibited viscoelastic behavior under dynamic shear with a 0.5% linear viscoelastic strain limit. Storage modulus G' averaged 737±310Pa, and loss modulus G″ averaged 197±76Pa. Values were similar for strain and frequency sweep testing. At rupture, shear stress averaged 617±366Pa and rupture strain averaged 200±70%. The long-term relaxation modulus averaged 646±264Pa at 100s. Frequency sweep testing validated the parameters of the Prony series fitted to the experimental stress relaxation data. Human orbital fat is linearly viscoelastic within a range typical of biological materials, and exhibits similar viscoelastic behavior for strain and frequency sweep testing. Stress relaxation data for human orbital fat has been parameterized for constitutive models that can be implemented in finite element analysis.

Design and development of vacuum system for electron beam powder bed fusion process

A vacuum system is one of the crucial components of the Electron Beam-Powder Bed Fusion Process (EB-PBF). It ensures the generation of a high-intensity electron beam. This paper presents a vacuum system design for the EB-PBF process. The work chamber and EB gun chamber have been designed and verified using ANSYS workbench for stress, strain, and deformation limits and found satisfactory. The analytical calculations have been performed for all the pumps, considering the various gas loads during the process. After the design, the vacuum system has been fabricated and tested for its stability, ultimate vacuum, and leak rate. The helium leak test results show that all the joints have a leak rate better than 1 × 10−8 mbar l/s. Further, the analytical results of each pump have been compared with experimental results and found almost in line with the theoretical results. The results show that a pressure lower than 1 × 10−5 mbar and 5 × 10−6 mbar can be achieved in the work chamber and EB gun chamber in less than 23 min and 10 min respectively. The chamber was evacuated multiple times and found that the chamber could still hold pressure better than 1 × 10−2 mbar after 48 h.

Lower limb acute onset muscle pain: what do we have to look for? A case of isolated rupture of the rectus femoris.

Acute muscle pain is muscle soreness that occurs during or within 24 hours of strenuous activity. Possible causes of acute muscle pain include localized muscle trauma, muscle tear, contusion with acute hemorrhage, or acute compartment syndrome. Isolated ruptures of the rectus femoris muscle are rare clinical conditions that result from excessive muscle strain following an abrupt contraction, incorrect movement, or sudden snap that exceeds the physiological limit of strain that the muscle can withstand. To date, there are few published reports evaluating the results of non-invasive treatment of such injuries. Herein, we report an unusual case of isolated distal rectus femoris tear in a 46-year-old female patient with no risk factors, who initially presented with extensor muscle weakness and pain and was treated conservatively with functional rest, physiotherapy, and cryotherapy.

GTP-24-1666 - Temperature Margin Calculation During Finite Element Creep Simulations (GT2024-121776)

Abstract Creep deformation in turbomachinery applications is a highly non-linear phenomenon where +/- 15°C may halve or double the average rupture life. Even in well-controlled laboratory conditions, this stochastic nature means that identical tests may differ by a factor of two. Analysts using implicit finite element user creep subroutines may not appreciate the uncertainty of their solution, or the design changes required to account for uncertainty in either the boundary conditions or the solution itself. Designing to a maximum strain limit does not consider the sudden acceleration of tertiary creep rates. Applying a time factor may extend the simulation time by multiple factors. This paper presents a methodology where two estimations of creep damage are made in parallel to the creep simulation at actual operating temperatures. These two estimations consider the predicted change in stress relaxation, at higher or lower temperatures, to estimate the temperature change required to reach the onset of creep, at any given node in the model, and at any given time in the analysis. This margin calculation is expanded to consider the uncertainty in creep prediction. A time-based scatter factor is incorporated into the temperature margin calculation to provide a minimum temperature margin that includes model uncertainty. The analyst can also consider the uncertainty of the temperature prediction and boundary conditions to produce a robust creep prediction in a real-world simulation. The methodology is validated through the FEA of example cases and applied to a creep-limited 2nd stage turbine blade.

Formability Characterization Using Curvature and Strain-Rate-Based Limit Strain Detection Methods Applied to Marciniak, Nakazima, and Stretch-Bend Tests

Despite advancements in the characterization of forming limit curves (FLCs) with the development of stereoscopic digital image correlation (DIC), there is still uncertainty in the accuracy of the limit strains, especially in forming operations with out-of-plane bending. The ISO12004-2:2008 standard offers a standardized approach to FLC determination but is not without limitations and is not always applicable to new materials and forming processes (e.g., warm forming, hot stamping). In the present work, a physically based limit strain detection technique is developed, termed the Enhanced Curvature Method (ECM), based on the sheet surface curvature evolution at the onset of necking in sheet formability testing. The ECM is applied to the characterization of 1.1 mm AA5182-O sheet using Marciniak, Nakazima, and stretch–bend characterization tests, and its limit strains are compared with those from the linear best-fit (LBF) local strain-rate approach and the ISO-12004 standard. The ECM considers the physical nature of necking in sheet forming with the aid of thresholds defined in terms of an imperfection metric analogous to the well-known Marciniak–Kuczynski (MK) imperfection factor. By quantifying the evolution of necking, FLCs of different safety margins can be readily generated, enabling a more intuitive selection for the factor of safety. For lower and upper ECM thresholds, the Marciniak plane strain limiting strain was determined to lie between 0.173 and 0.198, respectively, which is comparable to the analytical prediction of 0.194 and in general agreement with the published literature for AA5182-O. Similar plane strain limits were obtained using the ISO and LBF methods with values of 0.188 and 0.208, respectively. The same rankings in limit strain values between methods were observed for plane strain loading in Nakazima and stretch–bend tests.

Experimental testing and plastic strain analysis of high strength steel longitudinal plate to tubular X joints

Applying high strength steels to tubular joints can increase the propensity to fracture failure due to their lower ductility. However, to simulate the fracture behavior in the finite element (FE) analysis, sophisticated material damage model with rigorous fracture criteria should be incorporated. Recently, the latest draft of ISO 14346 has advocated the use of 5 % strain limit in FE analysis of tubular joints. The strain limit concept has been further developed by the authors’ previous work, for its use as a practical alternative to the complicated material damage model. Specifically, a lowered limit of 2.5 % was recommended for longitudinal plate to circular hollow section (CHS) joints subjected to in-plane bending. This study extends the strain limit investigation to longitudinal plate to tubular X joints subjected to tensile loads. An experimental program is first presented which included both CHS and rectangular hollow section (RHS) chord members fabricated from two high strength steels with nominal yield stresses of 460 MPa and 700 MPa. Based on test-validated supplemental numerical analyses, it is suggested that the joint load corresponding to 2.5 % strain limit can be taken as the load-bearing capacity to suppress occurrence of a fracture failure for the tubular joint configurations considered in this study.

Deep learning-aided inverse analysis framework to accelerate the exploration of DP steel microstructures

Materials development requires numerous numbers of trial and error experiments. To reduce the experimental cost, numerical simulations which predict material microstructures and mechanical properties have a great potential to estimate the microstructures that should be produced for obtaining materials with the desired properties. There is a need to develop dual-phase (DP) steel with higher strength and ductility because DP steel is widely used due to its significant mechanical properties. DP steel consists of a soft phase (ferrite) and a hard phase (martensite), and the mechanical properties depend on the ratio of the two phases. The mechanical properties of DP steels are affected by the spatial distribution of martensite and ferrite, which requires a comprehensive consideration of a variety of microstructures. The problem is how to estimate microstructures of DP steel with the desired mechanical property because a comprehensive investigation of microstructures makes computational cost significantly expensive. For the purpose of reduction of the computational costs, we aim to develop a framework with low computational cost. The developed framework finds the optimal microstructure of DP steel by repeated random searches for a model that combines a generative adversarial network (GAN), which generates microstructures, and a convolutional neural network (CNN), which predicts the maximum stress and working limit strain from microstructures. Due to a low-dimensional search space provided by a latent variable of GAN, the proposed framework enables an efficient search for microstructures possible. To explore the desired microstructures under complex deformation modes, the multiple deformation modes are considered in this study. This framework is applicable not only for the microstructure of DP steel but also any other material microstructures. We are exhaustively able to explore the microstructure with desired properties of metallic or other composite materials in low-dimensional space thanks to this framework and contributes to accelerating materials development.

The study on fracture response of cracked pipeline considering the Lüders effect

Since pipeline steel typically exhibits yield discontinuities, some pipelines may experience high local strains during service that exceed the strain limits required by existing fracture assessment methods, thereby posing a significant threat to pipeline integrity. By establishing a finite element fracture model of a cracked pipeline with the Lüders effect and incorporating a developed constitutive model with a trilinear stress-strain relationship, the mechanical and fracture responses of the cracked pipeline with the Lüders effect under uniaxial tensile loading are analyzed in this study. The effects of crack configurations and material parameters on the crack driving force are discussed in detail. The results indicate that an increase in crack length and strain hardening exponent lowers the crack driving force plateau and shortens its length. Conversely, increases in crack depth, softening modulus, and Lüders strain raise the crack driving force plateau. Specifically, as crack depth increases, the plateau length of the crack driving force shortens, while an increase in the softening modulus and Lüders strain extends the plateau length. These conclusions provide guidance for the fracture analysis and assessment of pipelines with cracks affected by the Lüders effect.

Numerical Design Calculation of T-stubs at Elevated Temperatures

AbstractThe failure of steel connections can lead to the progressive collapse of the entire structure. Accurate modelling of steel connections at elevated temperature allows structural fire engineers to design steel structures that may deal with the severity of a fire. The prEN 1993-1-14 proposes numerical design calculation for the static design check of steel connections. This paper presents a component-based finite element model (CBFEM) to design the T-stubs at elevated temperatures. The generated model is verified and validated against the results from the analytical model and experimental study. The resistance, failure modes and the load-deformation curves are used to validate and verify the CBFEM models for steel connection design at elevated temperatures. The results stated that the CBFEM is a practical design tool to model bolted connections at elevated temperatures and it is possible to apply the recommended 5% plastic limit strain by EN 1993-1-5 for fire design of bolted connections.

NiTi alloy helical lattice structure with high reusable energy absorption and enhanced damage tolerance

NiTi alloy lattice structures are crucial for reusable energy absorption due to their shape memory effects. However, existing NiTi alloy lattice structures always suffer from localized deformation bands during loading, causing local strains to exceed the recoverable strain limit of the alloy and significantly reducing their reusable energy-absorbing capacity. In this study, we developed a NiTi alloy helical lattice structure (HLS) to effectively prevent localized deformation bands. This is attributed to its struts distributing stress and strain uniformly through torsional deformation, thereby alleviating local stress concentrations and suppressing the formation of localized deformation bands. Additionally, its unit cells provide mutual support and reinforcement during deformation, effectively preventing the progression of localized deformation bands. The NiTi alloy HLS exhibits superior reusable energy absorption compared to previously reported reusable energy-absorbing materials/structures and enhanced damage tolerance under large compression strain. This study provides valuable insights for the development of high-performance reusable NiTi alloy energy-absorbing lattice structures.

Safety evaluation of deformed coke drum with nested stress at cold spot

In this article, the strain limit criterion and classical strength theories are used to evaluate the strength at the cold spot with nested effect of the deformed coke drum. First, the geometric model of the cold spot with nested effect before and after the deformation of the drum wall is established in the selected area, and the nested stress at the cold spot is calculated. Then, according to the calculated stress–strain results, the stress analysis of the drum wall at the cold spot is carried out. The results show that the coke drum yields during the cooling stage according to the strain limit criterion. According to classical strength theories, coke drum yields during the coke production and cooling stages. Finally, the paths are selected to calculate the equivalent stress–strain, and the stress–strain curves along the paths are plotted. By comparing the results of stress and strain evaluation, three evaluation methods are compared and studied.

Local plastic deformation effects on the critical current of high-Jc Nb3Sn strands under uniaxial strain

Abstract In order to meet the target operating parameters of the toroidal field coils (TFC) for the next-generation Chinese compact burning plasma tokamak, high critical current density (Jc) Nb3Sn strand will be applied to the high-field winding-package (WP) of the TFC. To improve the transverse stiffness of the cable in withstanding the huge Lorentz force and avoiding conductor performance degradation, the Short-Twist-Pitch (STP) and Copper-Wound-Strand (CWS) cable patterns were taken into consideration. In the processes of cabling and compaction of the conductor, the tight cable configurations lead to severe local plastic deformation (LPD) within the strands. The strands in the conductor are subjected to strain caused by thermal contraction and Lorentz force during conductor cooling down and operation. So far it is unknown, whether the LPD could impact the critical current (Ic) versus uniaxial applied strain behaviour of high-Jc Nb3Sn strand. Aiming to investigate the effect of LPD on the Ic of strands under uniaxial strain, three types of high Jc Nb3Sn strand with different indentation depths were tested on a U-shaped bending spring. The axial strain ranges from -0.9% to +0.4% at 14 T and 4.2 K. The three types of strands showed more strain sensitivity and lower tensile irreversible strain limit with increasing LPD, while even irreversible degradation of the Ic could be observed in the compressive strain region. The sample preparation, test process, test results and analysis are reported.

Experimental Investigation on Pure Torsion Behavior of Concrete Beams Reinforced with Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bars

The failure mechanism of torsional concrete beams with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars is essential for developing the design method. However, limited experimental research has been conducted on the torsion behavior of concrete beams with FRP bars. Therefore, the pure torsion test of four large-scale FRP-RC beams (2800 mm × 400 mm × 200 mm) was conducted to investigate the influence of the stirrup ratio (0, 0.49%, and 0.98%) and longitudinal reinforcement ratio (3.01%, 4.25%) on torsion behavior. The test results indicated that three typical failure patterns, including concrete cracking failure, stirrup rupturing failure, and concrete crushing failure, were observed in specimens without stirrups (stirrup ratio 0), partially over-reinforced specimens (stirrup ratio 0.49%), and over-reinforced specimens (stirrup ratio 0.98%), respectively. The tangent angle of spiral cracks at the midpoint of the long side of the cross-section was approximately 45° initially for all specimens. The torque–twist angle curves exhibited a linear and bilinear behavior for specimens without stirrups and specimens with stirrups, respectively. As the stirrup ratio increased from 0 to 0.98%, torsion capacity increased from 24.9 kN∙m to 27.8 kN∙m, increased by 12%, ultimate twist angle increased from 0.0018 rad/m to 0.0403 rad/m. As the longitudinal reinforcement ratio increased from 3.01% to 4.25%, the torsion capacity increased from 27.8 kN∙m to 28.3 kN∙m, and the ultimate twist angle decreased from 0.0403 rad/m to 0.0244 rad/m. Based on test results, the stirrup strain limit of 5200 με and spiral crack angle of 45° was suggested for torsion capacity calculation. In addition, based on the database of torsion tests, the performance of torsion capacity provisions was assessed.

Ductility‐oriented design of UHPC T‐beams: Mechanical model and design recommendations

AbstractUltrahigh performance concrete (UHPC) has recently become a major focus garnering substantial attention due to its remarkable mechanical properties. UHPC has been increasingly employed across diverse projects in the construction industry. However, the structural ductility of UHPC members has yet to be fully established and is often compromised by the manifestation of the crack localization phenomenon. This paper presents the flexural test results of five T‐beams and introduces a model for predicting the flexural capacity and failure modes of UHPC T‐beams. The model employs the curvature ductility index as a measurement for evaluating and ensuring the member's ductility. The results show that the flexural behavior of UHPC T‐beams can be characterized by four key points representing cracking, reinforcement yielding, crack localization, and post‐localization capacity. The validity of the model is substantiated by experimental data from this study and complemented by test data collected from the literature. The proposed model is then employed to derive ductility‐oriented design limits, including minimum and maximum reinforcement ratios and minimum localization strain capacity. Finally, the paper summarizes the design recommendations and provides a classification of section conditions, reinforcement limits, localization strain limits, adequate ductility range, and the feasible ductile design range.

Attapulgite‐Reinforced Robust and Ionic Conductive Composite Hydrogels for Digital Light Processing 3D Printing

AbstractIonic conductive hydrogels are widely used in many applications such as electrochemical energy storage, flexible electronic devices, and catalyst transistors due to their excellent ionic conductivity as well as chemical stability. However, the fragile mechanical properties and the lack of shaping methods severely limit their further applications. Herein, an ionic conductive composite hydrogel with reinforced mechanical properties is demonstrated that can be rapidly 3D printed using digital light processing technology. By using both γ‐methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane moderately modified attapulgite rigid particle and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) semicrystal dual‐network reinforcement, the mechanically robust and highly conductive N,N,N‐trimethylethanaminium‐chloride‐based hydrogels are obtained, demonstrating a 5 times higher tensile strength than the initial one due to the turning and orienting of the attapulgite as well as the robust PVA secondary network. Furthermore, encapsulation strategy is used to avoid the dehydration of hydrogel, and strain sensors that exceed the strain limit of the hydrogel are fabricated through structural design. This work provides a reference for attapulgite‐reinforced hydrogel in biosensing.

Forming Limits Prediction of Laminated SUS430/Al1050/SUS430 Composites and the Effect of Component Properties on Mechanical Performance

In this study, a constitutive model applied to predict the tensile properties and fracture behavior of well‐bonded multilayered metal composites is extended. The equivalent single‐layer model, as a convenient method, is introduced into finite‐element simulations by combining it with an improved Xue–Wierzbicki damage plasticity model that considers material anisotropy. The steel use stainless (SUS) 430/Al1050/SUS430 laminated sheet fabricated by cold rolling is selected as the research material. The quasistatic uniaxial tests and Nakazima tests are operated to verify the accuracy of the proposed method. The mean errors in tensile stress and fracture forming limit strains are 2% and 3%, respectively. A load‐sharing mixture rule is proposed to assess the effects of the volume fraction, strength coefficient, and hardening exponent of the constituent materials on the mechanical properties of the laminates. In the results, it is indicated that the laminate exhibits sufficient elongation and remains markedly enhanced in tensile strength, reaching 470 Mpa when the ductile Al layer is combined with the higher strength and hardenability steel layer. In this research, it is aimed to clarify the formability characteristics in laminated composites for optimal sheet configuration design and development.

Winding angle optimization and testing of small-scale, non-planar, high-temperature superconducting stellarator coils

We designed and constructed two non-planar coils with high-temperature superconductors (HTS) based on shapes from the Wendelstein 7-X stellarator. Tape track orientation of the HTS was optimized to reduce the coil size as much as possible while staying within the strain limits of the gadolinium barium copper oxide (GdBCO) superconductor. This resulted in average coil radii of 0.23 m and 0.48 m at strain limits of up 0.45% to for the coil shapes that were chosen. The coils were produced by winding the GdBCO tapes onto 3D-printed plastic frames. We confirmed the integrity of the superconducting layer after winding by spatially resolved measurement of the critical current and by energizing the coils in liquid nitrogen. Coil 1 showed a resistance of 1.75μΩ and did not have any critical current degradation, while coil 5 had a resistance of 195μΩ and showed only one dropout, attributable to a handling error. We measured the magnetic field of the coil with a three-axis Hall probe system and found good agreement with predictions. This work demonstrates the manufacturing of small-scale, non-planar magnetic coils from commercially available HTS.