Stormwater Runoff Samples Research Articles

Storm Water Pollution Source Identification in Washington, DC, Using Bayesian Chemical Mass Balance Modeling

A Bayesian chemical mass balance (CMB) model was used to identify the sources of heavy metals in a highly urbanized area at the vicinity of the Anacostia River in Washington, DC. This method uses the elemental profiles of potential sources and the storm water runoff samples at two outfalls into the Anacostia River to infer the contribution of each source by providing the joint probability densities of the contribution of each source and the credible intervals of the inference. For this purpose, the potential sources of heavy metals in the urban catchment were identified and multiple samples of each were collected and analyzed by using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry technique to determine their elemental profiles. Next, a Bayesian CMB method was employed to infer the contribution of various sources to the storm water runoff. The results of the analysis revealed that paved surfaces that accommodate traffic (i.e., street, bridge, and parking lot) are the major contributors to both dissolved and particulate metals in storm water. It was also found that for both dissolved fraction and total pollutants, the wet deposition source has a small contribution to all elements and that the runoff originating from roofs can be responsible for up to 50% of the Pb in the storm water.

A novel fractionation approach for water constituents – distribution of storm event metals

A novel fractionation method, based on both particle size and settling characteristics, was employed to examine metal distributions among five fractions. In-stream and stormwater runoff samples were collected from four land use types: highway, urban, agricultural (storm event and irrigation), and natural. Highway samples contained the highest dissolved concentrations for most metals, and freshwater ambient water quality criteria were exceeded for Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in the first storm of the water year. Anthropogenic sources were indicated for Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in highway and urban samples, and total metal loadings (mg km(-2)) were observed to be as follows: highway > urban > agricultural storm event ∼ natural > agricultural irrigation. Notably, ∼10-fold higher suspended solids concentration was observed in the agricultural storm event sample, and suspended solids-associated metals were correspondingly elevated. Distribution coefficients revealed the following affinities: Zn, Ni, Cd, and Pb to large dense particles; and Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, and Pb to colloidal organic matter.

Effect of Decing Salts on Ion Concentrations in Urban Stormwater Runoff

Stormwater draining from impervious surfaces in urban areas often contains readily soluble salts in runoff, which contribute dramatically to the degradation of aquatic ecosystem. The concentrations of potassium (K), cadmium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl) and sulfate (SO42-) in stormwater runoff in the urban areas of Shenyang city were measured in 4 rainfall events during July 2009 to June 2010. The results showed that there was an obvious increasing of salt ions concentrations in stormwater runoff samples, especially Na and Cl. It is also found that readily soluble salts ions in stormwater runoff peaked at the first storm event after winter. This study demonstrated that the applied deicing salts in winter significantly contributed to the increasing concentrations of K, Ca, Na, Mg, Cl, and SO42- in urban stormwater runoff. It is evident that the application of deicing salts in cold regions of China every year has had adverse impacts on the aquatic ecology through stormwater runoff.

Perfluoroalkyl acids in urban stormwater runoff: Influence of land use

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are persistent organic pollutants in the environment and have been reported to have nonpoint sources. In this study, six PFAAs with different chain lengths were monitored in stormwater runoff from seven storm events (2009–2011) at various outfall locations corresponding to different watershed land uses. We found PFAA(s) in 100% of stormwater runoff samples. Monitoring results and statistical analysis show that PFAAs in stormwater runoff from residential areas mainly came from rainfall. On the other hand, non-atmospheric sources at both industrial and commercial areas contributed PFAAs in stormwater runoff. The mass flux of PFAAs from stormwater runoff in the Twin Cities (Minneapolis and St. Paul, MN) metropolitan area is estimated to be about 7.86 kg/year. In addition, for the first time, we monitored PFAAs on the particles/debris in stormwater runoff and found high-level PFOS on the particulate matter in runoff collected from both industrial and commercial areas; the levels were so high that the finding could not be explained by the solid–water partitioning or adsorption. PFOS on the particulate matter is suspected to have originated from industrial/commercial products, entering the waste stream as PFOS containing particles.

Nutrients and Pesticides in Stormwater Runoff and Soil Water in Production Nurseries and Citrus and Avocado Groves in California

Potential water quality impacts of agricultural production include runoff and leaching losses of nutrients, pesticides, and sediment. Stormwater runoff and soil water samples were collected from citrus (Citrus spp.), avocado (Persea americana), and ornamental nursery sites in Ventura County, CA, across 19 months. Nitrate–nitrite–nitrogen concentrations in runoff ranged from 0.07 to 31.1 mg·L−1, with medians for groves and nurseries of 4.2 and 5.7 mg·L−1, respectively. Constituents in runoff exceeding benchmarks for surface waters included turbidity, chlorpyrifos, and some organochlorine pesticides. When detected, chlorpyrifos concentration was linearly related to sample turbidity (P = 0.0025, r2 = 0.49). This suggests that the retention of waterborne sediments on-site may be an effective method for mitigating runoff of this pesticide. Bifenthrin, permethrin, and diazinon were also detected in runoff, but concentrations did not exceed water quality benchmarks. Nutrient concentrations in soil water were generally similar to nutrient concentrations in stormwater runoff, suggesting that potential groundwater contamination from leaching at citrus, avocado, and nursery sites may be as much of a concern as stormwater from these operations, particularly on sites with sandy or structured soil texture or flat topography. Nitrate–nitrite–nitrogen and orthophosphate concentrations in soil water were linearly related to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer application rates across sites, respectively (P < 0.0001, r2 = 0.49 and 0.50, respectively), suggesting that proper nutrient management is important in reducing potential groundwater contamination at these operations.

Nutrients and Pesticides in Stormwater Runoff and Soil Water in Production Nurseries and Citrus and Avocado Groves in California

Potential water quality impacts of agricultural production include runoff and leaching losses of nutrients, pesticides, and sediment. Stormwater runoff and soil water samples were collected from citrus (Citrus spp.), avocado (Persea americana), and ornamental nursery sites in Ventura County, CA, across 19 months. Nitrate–nitrite–nitrogen concentrations in runoff ranged from 0.07 to 31.1 mg·L−1, with medians for groves and nurseries of 4.2 and 5.7 mg·L−1, respectively. Constituents in runoff exceeding benchmarks for surface waters included turbidity, chlorpyrifos, and some organochlorine pesticides. When detected, chlorpyrifos concentration was linearly related to sample turbidity (P = 0.0025, r2 = 0.49). This suggests that the retention of waterborne sediments on-site may be an effective method for mitigating runoff of this pesticide. Bifenthrin, permethrin, and diazinon were also detected in runoff, but concentrations did not exceed water quality benchmarks. Nutrient concentrations in soil water were generally similar to nutrient concentrations in stormwater runoff, suggesting that potential groundwater contamination from leaching at citrus, avocado, and nursery sites may be as much of a concern as stormwater from these operations, particularly on sites with sandy or structured soil texture or flat topography. Nitrate–nitrite–nitrogen and orthophosphate concentrations in soil water were linearly related to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer application rates across sites, respectively (P < 0.0001, r2 = 0.49 and 0.50, respectively), suggesting that proper nutrient management is important in reducing potential groundwater contamination at these operations.

Stormwater Runoff Quality from Different Surfaces in an Urban Catchment in Beijing, China

Urban stormwater runoff quality, widely investigated around the world, has been monitored less in Beijing, China, which impedes the municipal government to use best management practices to protect surface water. In this study, rainwater and stormwater runoff samples from roofs, roads, and a lawn on the campus of the Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences (RCEES) (Beijing, China) and from a ring road, with heavy traffic, have been sampled and analyzed for 31 storm events from June 2004 to August 2005. Total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total nitrogen, and total phosphorus concentrations in rainwater and runoff ranged over 2 or more orders of magnitude, meaning that the highest concentration of a certain pollutant did not always occur in a certain kind of runoff. Runoff contained significantly higher concentrations of pollutants than rainwater. On the campus of RCEES, TSS and total phosphorus in runoff samples from the lawn and roads were significantly higher than those from roofs, while the COD, BOD5, and total nitrogen concentrations were not significantly different in runoff among surfaces. Compared with runoff from the roads on campus, runoff from the ring road contained more COD and total nitrogen, but less TSS, BOD5, and total phosphorus. All pollutants measured in runoff from roofs on campus and from the ring road showed a peak concentration in starting runoff, which then decreased sharply. The peak concentrations of COD, BOD5, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus in the roof runoff increased with the increase in time of the antecedent dry period. Thus, urban stormwater pollution control, especially for first-flush control, is of great importance for the full use of rainwater and prevention of water pollution.

Toxicity of urban highway runoff with respect to storm duration

The toxicity of stormwater runoff during various time-based stages was measured in both grab and composite samples collected from three highly urbanized highway sites in Los Angeles, California between 2002 and 2005. Stormwater runoff samples were tested for toxicity using three freshwater species (the water flea Ceriodaphnia dubia, the fathead minnow Pimephales promelas, and the green algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitatum) and two marine species (the purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, and the luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum using Microtox™). Toxicity results varied substantially throughout the storm events for both freshwater and marine species toxicity tests. In general, however, the first few samples were found to be more toxic compared with those collected during later stages of each storm event. In most cases, more than 40% of the toxicity was associated with the first 20% of discharged runoff volume. Furthermore, on average, 90% of the toxicity was observed during the first 30% of storm duration. Toxicity identification evaluation results found copper and zinc to be the primary cause of toxicity in about 90% of the samples evaluated with these procedures. Surfactants were also found to be the cause of toxicity in less than 10% of the samples.

Evaluation of Metal Loadings and Bioavailability in Air, Water and Soil Along Two Highways of British Columbia, Canada

A comprehensive multi-media monitoring field investigation, which included: atmospheric, storm-water runoff, road sediment and soil samples, was carried out at two highway sites in Vancouver, Canada, focused on Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, and Zn, due to their prevalence in most highway environments, both locally and worldwide. Metal potential bioavailability was evaluated through sequential extraction in the case of particulates and via exchange with a chelating resin for highway runoff. Road sediment showed in most cases a close resemblance with runoff and atmospheric metal concentrations (Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu > Pb), suggesting that road sediment is a useful indicator of current metal loadings and a key factor influencing the quality of urban watersheds. Metals showed increasing bioavailability with decreasing particle size in all samples. Thus, bioavailability was low in roaddust and roadside soils, intermediate in dustfall, and highest in atmospheric suspended particulates and runoff. Speciation analyses in different environmental media suggested that Zn is a metal of future potential concern. Zinc was second in concentration to Fe in most dust, air and water samples, and exhibited the highest mobility and potential bioavailability.

Variation of microorganism concentrations in urban stormwater runoff with land use and seasons

Stormwater runoff samples were collected from outfalls draining small municipal separate storm sewer systems. The samples were collected from three different land use areas based on local designation (high-density residential, low-density residential and landscaped commercial). The concentrations of microorganisms in the stormwater runoff were found to be similar in magnitude to, but less variable than, those reported in the stormwater National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) database. Microorganism concentrations from high-density residential areas were higher than those associated with low-density residential and landscaped commercial areas. Since the outfalls were free of sanitary wastewater cross-connections, the major sources of microorganisms to the stormwater runoff were most likely from the feces of domestic animals and wildlife. Concentrations of microorganisms were significantly affected by the season during which the samples were collected. The lowest concentrations were observed during winter except for Staphylococcus aureus. The Pearson correlation coefficients among different indicators showed weak linear relationships and the relationships were statistically significant. However, the relationships between indicators and pathogens were poorly correlated and were not statistically significant, suggesting the use of indicators as evidence of the presence of pathogens is not appropriate. Further, the correlation between the concentration of the traditionally monitored indicators (total coliforms and fecal coliforms) and the suggested substitutes (enterococci and E. coli) is weak, but statistically significant, suggesting that historical time series will be only a qualitative indicator of impaired waters under the revised criteria for recreational water quality by the US EPA.

Removal of dissolved metals by zero-valent iron (ZVI): Kinetics, equilibria, processes and implications for stormwater runoff treatment

Infiltration of stormwater runoff contaminated with metals is often questionable in several cases due to its long-term potential to cause deterioration of groundwater quality. To ensure the quality of filtrate, a pre-treatment of contaminated runoff is required. This study investigates the processes of copper and zinc ion removal from stormwater runoff using zero-valent iron (ZVI, Fe 0). Kinetic and equilibrium tests were performed with laboratory-prepared and in situ stormwater runoff samples collected from roof, street and highway catchments. Based on the results, a substantial portion of Cu 2+ is reduced and transformed to insoluble forms of Cu 0 and Cu 2O. Unlike copper, the adsorption and co-precipitation associated with freshly precipitated iron oxides play important roles for the removal of Zn 2+. Investigations under various water quality conditions demonstrated a relatively minor impact on Cu 2+ uptake rates. However, the different conditions apparently altered the removal stoichiometry and phases of the copper deposits. The removal rates of Zn 2+ increase with higher dissolved oxygen (DO), ionic strength (IS), temperature ( T) and pH. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in runoff samples forms complexes with metals and Fe 2+, thereby kinetically decreasing the metal uptake rates. Furthermore, depending on its composition, a larger molecular weight organic fraction was found to preferentially compete for the adsorption sites. The study demonstrates that ZVI is a promising medium for achieving comparable capacity to a commercial adsorbent like granular ferric hydroxide (GFH). Long-term performance of ZVI, however, may be limited and governed by the formation of non-conductive layers of iron and cuprous oxides.

Contribution of trace metals from atmospheric deposition to stormwater runoff in a small impervious urban catchment

The contribution of atmospheric deposition to emissions of trace metals in stormwater runoff was investigated by quantifying wet and dry deposition fluxes and stormwater discharges within a small, highly impervious urban catchment in Los Angeles. At the beginning of the dry season in spring 2003, dry deposition measurements of chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc were made monthly for 1 year. Stormwater runoff and wet deposition samples also were collected, and loading estimates of total annual deposition (wet+dry) were compared with annual stormwater loads. Wet deposition contributed 1–10% of the total deposition inside the catchment, indicating the dominance of dry deposition in semi-arid regions such as Los Angeles. Based on the ratio of total deposition to stormwater, atmospheric deposition potentially accounted for as much as 57–100% of the total trace metal loads in stormwater within the study area. Despite potential bias attributable to processes that were not quantified in this study (e.g., resuspension out of the catchment or sequestration within the catchment), these results demonstrate atmospheric deposition represents an important source of trace metals in stormwater to waterbodies near urban centers.

Evaluation of Potential Molecular Markers for Urban Stormwater Runoff

Source specificity and persistence of several sulfur-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (S-PAHs), nitro-PAHs (N-PAHs), and triphenylene were examined via analyses of stormwater runoff and wastewater effluent samples and spiked samples upon exposure to sunlight. Samples were collected during the 1997/1998 wet weather season from two major storm channels and four major wastewater treatment plants in southern California. Among the target compounds examined, 2-(4-morpholinyl)benzothiazole, dibenzothiophene, and triphenylene/chrysene were detected in storm runoff only. However, 2-(4-morpholinyl)benzothiazole appeared to degrade rapidly in seawater and sediment after sunlight exposure, which might impede its use as a runoff indicator. Dibenzothiophene and triphenylene also degraded quickly in sunlight-exposed seawater samples, but remained fairly abundant in sediments after six months of exposure to sunlight. They are by far the most promising candidates of urban runoff markers based on the criteria of abundance, source specificity, and persistence, although more research efforts are needed to ensure that no other sources would also contribute significantly to their presence in the aquatic environment.

Lead and petroleum hydrocarbon changes in an urban wetland receiving stormwater runoff

The hydrology and water quality of an urban wetland receiving stormwater runoff from a municipal maintenance garage were measured during the summer of 1993 to evaluate the wetland’s water quality enhancement function. Surface water accounted for half of the inflow and more than 80% of the outflow. Stormwater runoff and dry period water samples were analyzed for total lead and total petroleum hydrocarbons. Lead and petroleum were present at higher levels in stormwater runoff samples than in the weekly samples. Average mass loadings of these constituents were higher at the wetland inlet than at the outlet. Levels of lead and petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments were higher near the inlet than elsewhere on the site. Hydrologic and analytical data together suggest that sedimentation was the primary mechanism actively reducing water column concentrations of lead and petroleum hydrocarbons introduced to the wetland via stormwater runoff.

Stormwater runoff quality of a louisiana log storage and handling facility

Very little attention has been paid to the stormwater runoff quality from log storage and handling facilities. This project determined the concentrations of conventional parameters such as BOD5, COD and TSS, and 123 priority pollutants of stormwater runoff samples from a log storage and handling facility in Louisiana. No significant levels of priority pollutants were found and only about 1 to 13 % of COD was biodegradable. COD followed closely with TSS, suggesting that effective control of TSS will control COD as well. The pollutant strength resulting from summer to fall storms did not vary much.

In situ toxicity evaluations of turbidity and photoinduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

AbstractPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are prevalent pollutants in the aquatic environment that can cause a wide range of toxic effects. Earlier studies have shown that toxicity of PAHs can be enhanced by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. In situ and laboratory exposures with Ceriodaphnia dubia were used to evaluate photoinduced toxicity of PAHs in wet‐weather runoff and in turbid conditions. Exposure to UV increased the toxicity of PAH‐contaminated sediment to C. dubia. Toxicity was removed when UV wavelengths did not penetrate the water column to the exposed organisms. A significant correlation was observed between in situ C. dubia survival and turbidity when organisms were exposed to sunlight. Stormwater runoff samples exhibited an increase in chronic toxicity (reproduction) to C. dubia when exposed to UV wavelengths as compared to C. dubia not exposed to UV wavelengths. Toxicity was reduced significantly in the presence of UV radiation when the organic fraction of stormwater runoff was removed. The PAHs are bound to the sediment and resuspended into the water column once the sediment is disturbed (e.g., during a storm). The in situ and laboratory results showed that photoinduced toxicity occurred frequently during low flow conditions and wet weather runoff and was reduced in turbid conditions.

Stormwater runoff from highways

During four rain events, stormwater runoff samples from Interstate Highway 95 in Rhode Island were collected and analyzed for petroleum hydrocarbons, 14 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and a variety of trace metals. The concentrations were variable throughout the storm events and some of the components responded similarly and others differently depending on the source and form of the component in the runoff. Loading factors as a function of area and traffic volume were developed from the concentration and flow data. Application of the highway runoff loading factors to the Pawtuxet River adjacent to this interstate highway suggests that highway runoff could be the source of over 50% of the annual pollutant loads of solids, PAHs, Pb, and Zn entering this river. It is recommended that highways as a source of non-point pollution to receiving waterbodies should be included as a part of any river and estuarine water quality management planning exercise.

Sources and fates of aromatic compounds in urban stormwater runoff

Petroleum-derived aromatic hydrocarbons and associated sulfur compounds in urban storm-water runoff and Delaware River sediment samples were characterized with a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization/sulfur specific flame photometric detection system. Total petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations were determined gravimetrically in storm water emanating from a northern Philadelphian storm sewer. Comparison of hydrocarbon and sulfur fingerprints of the aromatic fractions of environmental samples with reference oils indicated that crankcase oil was the most likely source of aromatics in storm-water runoff. A weathering study on used crankcase oils showed a loss of diaromatics which accounted for their absence in the environmental samples. Since aromatic sulfur compounds were preferentially associated with particulate matter in urban runoff, a mechanism was proposed in which fuel oils and lubricating oils released to the environment are adsorbed onto particulate matter. The lower boiling diaromatics are lost through natural weathering, and during a storm, the particulates are washed into sewers and then into receiving waters.