Storm Shelter Research Articles

Factors that influenced preferences regarding use of public and private tornado shelters during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

This study examines factors shaping individuals' preferences for use of tornado shelters in public and private facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic, utilizing over 6000 surveys collected in Spring and Summer 2020 across the central and eastern United States. We employed Random Forest (RF) ensemble modeling to assess respondents' inclination to use storm shelters in group settings, including a scenario where face masks were mandated at public shelters to reduce COVID-19 exposure. Key findings suggest that both generalized infectious disease risk perception and COVID-19 risk perception consistently ranked as the most influential factors affecting respondents' preferences regarding group tornado sheltering during the pandemic, reflecting the impact of infectious disease concerns. Previous experience with using public tornado shelters was a better predictor of sheltering preferences than cognitive and affective tornado risk perceptions. Tornado risk perception and housing type were less important than the COVID-19 and infectious disease variables. When a hypothetical mask requirement was introduced, individuals with greater COVID-19-related fears showed a heightened inclination to use public storm shelters, suggesting masks influenced sheltering decisions while partially mitigating concerns about enclosed spaces. Residents of mobile homes exhibited stronger preferences for using storm shelters in group settings, underscoring their perceptions of vulnerability to tornadoes. This research emphasizes the substantial role of COVID-19 risk perception in shaping public tornado shelter preferences during the early stages of the pandemic. It also highlights the importance of considering infectious disease risk perception in understanding sheltering behaviors, even outside of a pandemic context.

Examining weak sustainability for storm protection by mangroves

Although the body of scientific evidence supports that mangroves provide storm protection and save lives during cyclones, coastal planners have been prioritizing the adoption of technological alternatives, for example, early warnings, evacuation training, and storm shelters—over mangrove conservation, to manage storm risks. Such policy has the underlying assumption that mangroves and technological alternatives for storm protection are perfect substitutes. This paper studies storm protection by mangroves in India and compares the life-saving efficacy of mangroves and technological alternatives empirically under different evacuation scenarios. Results show that the storm-protection ability of mangroves remains significant and that mangroves have been protecting lives even when these technological alternatives are present in a large number.

Evacuation and shelter plans for asteroid impacts informed by hurricanes and nuclear explosions

Evacuation zone recommendations are determined for potential asteroid impacts. In most impacts on land, the dominant damage mechanism is the blast wave. Hurricane evacuations in the United States show that on average people evacuate to a 1 in a million risk of fatality level. To achieve the equivalent risk from a blast wave, preliminary estimates show that everyone within the 1–2 psi (≈0.07–0.14 atm or bar) blast radius should evacuate as, even when taking shelter, the risk threshold is probably exceeded. From there out to the 0.4–0.5 psi radii, seeking shelter in the basement of a reinforced concrete building or storm shelter, or in a home-built shelter in the basement of a house would suffice as alternatives to evacuation while keeping the fatality risk below 1 in a million. From 0.4 down to 0.1–0.2 psi, windows may break but little to no structural damage to buildings is expected, so simply staying away from windows and doors would be sufficient.

Drivers of Household Risk Perceptions and Adjustment Intentions to Tornado Hazards in Oklahoma

Abstract Tornadoes are responsible for considerable property damage and loss of life across Oklahoma. While several studies have explored drivers of tornado adjustment behaviors, their results are not consistent in terms of their significance and direction. To address this shortcoming in the literature, we surveyed households using a disproportionate stratified sampling procedure from counties in Oklahoma that frequently experience tornado threats to explore drivers of adjustments. We used structural equation modeling (SEM) to explore relationships among variables highlighted in the protection motivation theory (PMT) and related literature that affect adjustment intentions and risk perceptions. Overall, we found that the factors highlighted in the PMT are effective at explaining households’ intentions of adopting adjustment behaviors associated with tornado hazards. Threat appraisals, however, were less important than coping appraisals in explaining tornado hazard adjustment intentions. In further analysis, we grouped adjustments as 1) basic (e.g., flashlight, food supply, and water supply) and 2) complex (e.g., insurance and storm shelter), and we found that while coping appraisals are significant drivers of both adjustment categories, the effect of threat appraisals is only significant for complex adjustment intentions. We also found that emotional responses to hazards are major drivers of threat appraisals, stronger than perceived knowledge and hazard salience. Moreover, we found that demographic characteristics affect both adjustment intentions and threat appraisals. The additions to the PMT and categorization of adjustment activities improve our understanding of the PMT in different contexts. Such insights provide scholars and emergency managers with strategies for risk communication efforts. Significance Statement Tornadoes have caused considerable property damage and loss of life across the state of Oklahoma. Here, we utilize the protection motivation theory (PMT) to explore drivers of tornado hazard adjustment intentions by surveying households from counties in Oklahoma that frequently experience tornadoes. Overall, we found that threat appraisals and coping appraisals produce differential effects depending on the type of hazard adjustment in question. Our findings show that risk perceptions are not a significant explanatory variable of basic adjustments (e.g., flashlight, food supply, and water supply) but are a significant explanatory variable of complex adjustments (e.g., insurance and storm shelter). Future work should provide broader perspectives on how to advance the PMT to better explain adjustment intentions for various hazards.

Thunderstorm wind load evaluation on storm shelters using wind tunnel testing

In Canada, there is a growing number of thunderstorms capable of generating intensive gust fronts and tornadoes, which drastically affect people living in rural areas. Currently, the influence of windstorms is not sufficiently accounted for in building codes such as the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC 2015). Moreover, people in rural areas are more prone to those weather-related fatalities due to the lack of suitable storm shelters. The current study aims at studying the aerodynamic behavior of storm shelters subjected to non-synoptic wind (i.e., downbursts). Wind tunnel tests were conducted at Ryerson University for the three commonly used storm shelter shapes in Canada for different angles of attack. Mean force and moment coefficients were found and benchmarked against similar data for the same models obtained from a turbulent boundary layer wind tunnel test. Afterwards, the maximum absolute design force and moment coefficients resulting from all angles of attack were identified, and a design example for storm shelters in Canada was given to compare between downburst and boundary layer design loads.

Wind load evaluation on storm shelters using wind tunnel testing and North American design codes

In Canada, the number of extreme wind events is increasing due to climate change. Accordingly, storm shelters are becoming more popular, as it provides a life-saving solution during wind events. Currently, the National Building code of Canada (NBCC 2015) and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE 7-16) codes consider storm shelters as low-rise buildings with high importance factor with no specific guidelines for their smaller scale. The current study aims at comparing North American codes for designing wind shelters to a detailed experimental wind simulation using boundary layer wind tunnel testing under the synoptic wind. Wind tunnel tests were conducted at Ryerson University for three commonly used shapes of storm shelters. The governing wind loads from the wind tunnel results were compared to the design codes for both structural forces and cladding pressures. The study also illustrates and quantifies critical zones that may exceed the codes provided values due to being flow separation regions.

Ocean Affects from Severe Weather Systems in Coastal Areas

Severe weather systems can generate large waves and storm surges which can cause many fatalities in coastal areas. In extreme circumstances a single cyclone caused up to 500,000 fatalities in the Bay of Bengal in 1970. Adaption by authorities in that region from evacuations and construction of storm shelters have significantly reduced the number of such fatalities there. The effects of Hurricane Sandy in 2012 in New York City and surrounding areas is examined to show how ocean effects can cause many casualties. Scrutiny of a European storm shows how a slight error in analysis can fail to detect a deadly increase in intensity which caused many fatalities. World record wave height events are examined, and the historical Australian east coast events are investigated. The impacts from long period waves emanating from distant storms are shown to be a forecasting problem.

Darting towards Storm Shelter: A minute dinosaur trackway from southern Africa

Theropod dinosaurs are considered the main terrestrial carnivores in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Their rise to dominance has been linked to, among others, body size changes in their early history, especially across the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. However, to qualitatively assess such temporal trends, robust skeletal and trace fossil data sets are needed globally. The richly fossiliferous southern African continental rock record in the main Karoo Basin offers an unparalleled perspective for such investigations. Herein, by documenting a newly discovered Early Jurassic trackway of very small, functionally tridactyl tracks near Storm Shelter (Eastern Cape) in South Africa, the track record can be expanded. Based on ichnological measurements at the ichnosite and digital 3D models, the footprint dimensions (length, width, splay), locomotor parameters (step length, stride, speed), and body size estimates of the trackmaker are presented. In comparison to other similar tracks, these footprints are not only the smallest Grallator-like tracks in the Clarens Formation, but also the most elongated dinosaur footprints in southern Africa to date. The tracks also show that the small-bodied bipedal trackmaker dashed across the wet sediment surface at an estimated running speed of ~12.5 km/h. During the dash, either as a predator or as a prey, the trackmaker’s small feet sunk hallux-deep into the sediment. The tracking surface is overgrown by fossilised microbial mats, which likely enhanced the footprint preservation. Based on track morphometrics and the regional dinosaur skeletal record, the trackmakers are attributed to Megapnosaurus rhodesiensis (formerly Syntarsus rhodesiensis), a small-to-medium-sized, early theropod common in southern Africa.Significance:
 
 A newly discovered Early Jurassic theropod trackway in South Africa contains not only the smallest tracks in the Clarens Formation, but also the most elongated dinosaur footprints in southern Africa to date.
 The tracks show that the small bipedal trackmaker dashed across the wet sediment surface at an estimated running speed of ~12.5 km per hour.
 During the run, the trackmaker’s feet sunk so deeply into the sediment that even the forwards-directed halluces were impressed.
 
 Open data set: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.13007240.v1

Radiation Risks in a Mission to Mars for a Solar Particle Event Similar to the AD 993/4 Event

Within the past decade, evidence of excess atmospheric 14C production in tree rings, coupled with an increase in annually resolved measurements of 10Be in Arctic and Antarctic ice cores, have indicated that an extremely large solar particle event (SPE) occurred in AD 993/4. The production of cosmogenic nuclei, such as 36Cl in consonance with 10Be, indicate that the event had a very energetic “hard” particle spectrum, comparable to the event of February 1956. Herein, we estimate the potential radiation risk to male and female crew members on a mission to Mars that would occur from such an SPE. Critical organ doses and effective doses are calculated and compared with NASA space radiation limits for an SPE comparable to the AD 993/4 event, occurring during the transit phase to Mars, or while the crew members are operating on the surface of Mars. Aluminum shielding, similar in thickness to a surface lander, a spacecraft, and a storm shelter area within the spacecraft, are assumed for the transit phase. For surface operations, including the shielding provided by the atmosphere of Mars, shielding comparable to a spacesuit, enclosed rover, and a surface habitat are assumed. The results of our simulations indicate that such an event might have severe consequences for astronauts in transit to Mars. However, on the surface of Mars, the atmosphere provides some protection against an event similar to the 993/4 SPE. In general, the results show that additional shielding may be required for some of the assumed shielding scenarios.

Darting towards Storm Shelter: a minute dinosaur trackway from southern Africa

Theropod dinosaurs are considered the main terrestrial carnivores in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Their rise to dominance has been linked to, among others, body size changes in their early history, especially across the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. However, to qualitatively assess such temporal trends, robust skeletal and trace fossil data sets are needed globally. The richly fossiliferous southern African continental rock record in the main Karoo Basin offers an unparalleled perspective for such investigations. Herein, by documenting a newly discovered Early Jurassic trackway of very small, functionally tridactyl tracks near Storm Shelter (Eastern Cape) in South Africa, the track record can be expanded. Based on ichnological measurements at the ichnosite and digital 3D models, the footprint dimensions (length, width, splay), locomotor parameters (step length, stride, speed), and body size estimates of the trackmaker are presented. In comparison to other similar tracks, these footprints are not only the smallest Grallator-like tracks in the Clarens Formation, but also the most elongated dinosaur footprints in southern Africa to date. The tracks also show that the small-bodied bipedal trackmaker dashed across the wet sediment surface at an estimated running speed of ~12.5 km/h. During the dash, either as a predator or as a prey, the trackmaker’s small feet sunk hallux-deep into the sediment. The tracking surface is overgrown by fossilised microbial mats, which likely enhanced the footprint preservation. Based on track morphometrics and the regional dinosaur skeletal record, the trackmakers are attributed to Megapnosaurus rhodesiensis (formerly Syntarsus rhodesiensis), a small-to-medium-sized, early theropod common in southern Africa.Significance: A newly discovered Early Jurassic theropod trackway in South Africa contains not only the smallest tracks in the Clarens Formation, but also the most elongated dinosaur footprints in southern Africa to date. The tracks show that the small bipedal trackmaker dashed across the wet sediment surface at an estimated running speed of ~12.5 km per hour. During the run, the trackmaker’s feet sunk so deeply into the sediment that even the forwards-directed halluces were impressed. Open data set: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.13007240.v1

NASA's first ground-based Galactic Cosmic Ray Simulator: Enabling a new era in space radiobiology research.

With exciting new NASA plans for a sustainable return to the moon, astronauts will once again leave Earth’s protective magnetosphere only to endure higher levels of radiation from galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) and the possibility of a large solar particle event (SPE). Gateway, lunar landers, and surface habitats will be designed to protect crew against SPEs with vehicle optimization, storm shelter concepts, and/or active dosimetry; however, the ever penetrating GCR will continue to pose the most significant health risks especially as lunar missions increase in duration and as NASA sets its aspirations on Mars. The primary risks of concern include carcinogenesis, central nervous system (CNS) effects resulting in potential in-mission cognitive or behavioral impairment and/or late neurological disorders, degenerative tissue effects including circulatory and heart disease, as well as potential immune system decrements impacting multiple aspects of crew health. Characterization and mitigation of these risks requires a significant reduction in the large biological uncertainties of chronic (low-dose rate) heavy-ion exposures and the validation of countermeasures in a relevant space environment. Historically, most research on understanding space radiation-induced health risks has been performed using acute exposures of monoenergetic single-ion beams. However, the space radiation environment consists of a wide variety of ion species over a broad energy range. Using the fast beam switching and controls systems technology recently developed at the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL) at Brookhaven National Laboratory, a new era in radiobiological research is possible. NASA has developed the “GCR Simulator” to generate a spectrum of ion beams that approximates the primary and secondary GCR field experienced at human organ locations within a deep-space vehicle. The majority of the dose is delivered from protons (approximately 65%–75%) and helium ions (approximately 10%–20%) with heavier ions (Z ≥ 3) contributing the remainder. The GCR simulator exposes state-of-the art cellular and animal model systems to 33 sequential beams including 4 proton energies plus degrader, 4 helium energies plus degrader, and the 5 heavy ions of C, O, Si, Ti, and Fe. A polyethylene degrader system is used with the 100 MeV/n H and He beams to provide a nearly continuous distribution of low-energy particles. A 500 mGy exposure, delivering doses from each of the 33 beams, requires approximately 75 minutes. To more closely simulate the low-dose rates found in space, sequential field exposures can be divided into daily fractions over 2 to 6 weeks, with individual beam fractions as low as 0.1 to 0.2 mGy. In the large beam configuration (60 × 60 cm2), 54 special housing cages can accommodate 2 to 3 mice each for an approximately 75 min duration or 15 individually housed rats. On June 15, 2018, the NSRL made a significant achievement by completing the first operational run using the new GCR simulator. This paper discusses NASA’s innovative technology solution for a ground-based GCR simulator at the NSRL to accelerate our understanding and mitigation of health risks faced by astronauts. Ultimately, the GCR simulator will require validation across multiple radiogenic risks, endpoints, doses, and dose rates.

Energy requirements of a thermally processed ISRU radiation shield for a lunar habitat

The purpose of this study was to establish, on a first principles basis, the order of magnitude of energy requirements for a thermally processed, lunar regolith radiation shield constructed using an in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) approach. This was done by developing a reference scenario habitat and using thermodynamic relationships and specific heat capacity expressions to determine the energy required to bring such a regolith volume up to sintering temperatures (c. 1,375 K). Once the energy requirements were developed some power system architectures were outlined conceptually and a nuclear power plant of c. 400 kW was suggested as a means to supply the necessary energy. This is well beyond current space nuclear applications. The study concludes that it is likely that the most efficient near-term solution is chemical processing of regolith, from an energy requirements perspective. The technology is also more mature and likely to be delivered on near term projects as it does not require such scaled-up power system architectures. Alternatively, bringing storm shelters up with the habitat to provide a means of weathering major solar events, and adding additional radiation protection to habitat quarters, possibly through a water blanket or similar mechanism, could provide a non-ISRU solution with current technology. However, in the longer term, the development of MW-scale power system architectures (fission, solar etc.), may permit a very large volume of material to be processed thermally for construction material, making a large, permanent human presence on the Moon more easily realisable.

MISSION TO MARS: RADIATION SAFETY OR RADIATION DISASTER? SPACE TRANSIT AND MARS RADIATION EXPOSURE RISKS – THE POTENTIAL SHIELDING EFFECT OF AN INTRAVEHICULAR GRAPHENE SPACE SUIT AND A STORM SHELTER DURING SPACE TRAVEL

ABSTRACT Aim The purpose of this research was to employ radiobiological as well as physics principles to investigate materials for an intravehicular spacesuit and a “storm shelter” that might minimize radiation exposure to astronauts during a mission to Mars. Methods NASA’s OLTARIS space radiation modelling tool was used to investigate thirty-two potential shielding materials. Radiation exposure was estimated during a return transit to Mars of 360 days duration. We assessed each shielding material by its ability to decrease effective radiation dose received by a computerized phantom during the constant galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) and a single solar particle event (SPE). For the “storm shelter” a large liquid fuel tank was modelled adjacent to the phantom during a SPE. Results At standard conditions, graphene appeared to be a promising shielding material when comparing other materials including polyethylene and lithium. The shielding efficacy became comparable to polyethylene but inferior to lithium when materials were normalised to 10g/cm2, 20g/cm2 and 30g/cm2. The graphene around the phantom reduced effective dose from GCR compared with an unshielded transit by 34% (162mSv/yr vs 213.3mSv/yr). A “storm shelter” using a liquid fuel tank was positioned to create a barrier adjacent to the astronauts. The liquid barrier reduced effective dose by 98.8% (44mSv vs 3614mSv). Other mitigation strategies were deduced and divided into launch, transit and habitation considerations. Conclusion A graphene based intravehicular suit could decrease astronaut exposure to harmful radiation during transit to Mars. A storm shelter using fuel as a barrier also decreased radiation dose during a solar particle event.

Characterization of Solar Energetic Particle Radiation Dose to Astronaut Crew on Deep‐Space Exploration Missions

AbstractHuman radiation exposure from solar energetic particle (SEP) events during deep‐space exploration missions has a greater impact on mission planning and operations compared to spaceflight missions to low Earth orbit. Deep‐space SEP radiation exposure may require in‐flight preventative actions in order to reduce the radiation risks to as low as reasonably achievable, to limit the onset and severity of acute biological responses, and to ensure that astronaut permissible exposure limits are not exceeded. In this paper, radiation dose to the blood forming organs (BFO) of astronaut crew is calculated from a set of historical SEP events, using the design of the Orion Multipurpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV). The BFO doses from the historical events are analyzed in several ways. The results show the range and upper limit of BFO doses expected in heavily shielded space vehicles such as the Orion MPCV, based on calculations from all the major SEP events encountered in the space age. The dose reduction properties of the MPCV storm shelter are characterized over the broad range of SEP events included in the historical database. Correlations are derived between the integral proton fluence and BFO dose in the vehicle, showing that integral fluence is a good proxy for predicting or forecasting vehicle BFO dose. The best correlation with MPCV BFO dose is from the >100 MeV integral fluence. These results will assist in the design of future space weather architectures by identifying models and measurements needed to expand and extend NASA's existing SEP radiation risk tools in the support and management of human space exploration missions.

Human Factors Ground Test Assessment and Protocol Development for Space Radiation Protection Concepts

Human factors evaluations and procedures were developed in a series of ground tests in order to assess novel radiation protection concepts developed by industry leaders in aerospace. In addition, NASA’s current prototype space radiation protection vest and storm shelter concept were tested using the newly drafted human factors assessment materials. Evaluation procedures and wearable garment technology were tested at Johnson Space Center (JSC) using a small sample of current NASA crewmembers for garment testing. Results for the garment analysis indicated that the current radiation vest ultimately did not hinder task performance or impede mobility. Results from the storm shelter analysis indicated that crew were able to construct the shelter within the time allotment without difficulty and limited reference to instruction materials. These data will be used to further develop wearable garment technology and storm shelter designs. Newly developed procedures will be used in future ground tests to further assess novel radiation protection concepts.

P59 - Mission to Mars: Radiation Safety or Radiation Disaster? Space Transit and Mars Radiation Exposure Risks—The Shielding Effect of a Graphene Space Suit and a Storm Shelter During Space Travel

P59 - Mission to Mars: Radiation Safety or Radiation Disaster? Space Transit and Mars Radiation Exposure Risks—The Shielding Effect of a Graphene Space Suit and a Storm Shelter During Space Travel

Active Dosimeter‐Based Estimate of Astronaut Acute Radiation Risk for Real‐Time Solar Energetic Particle Events

AbstractRadiation exposure from solar energetic particle (SEP) events becomes a much greater concern as human exploration extends beyond low Earth orbit and the protective environment of Earth's magnetic field. Free‐space SEP events have an increased impact on mission planning and operations, as countermeasures may be necessary to avoid exceeding astronaut permissible exposure limits. Operational analysis tools are needed to assess acute radiation risk during SEP events in order to determine courses of action during the mission. A methodology has been developed to meet this need, which utilizes onboard vehicle dosimeter measurements to estimate organ dosimetric quantities at astronaut crew locations in real time. The estimated organ doses provide the necessary inputs to acute biological response models that predict radiation‐induced performance decrement and other acute radiation effects. The real‐time SEP organ dose estimation methodology has been combined with an acute biological response model, providing an active dosimeter‐based acute radiation risk model for operational mission planning, and determining radiation exposure mitigation measures for deep‐space exploration missions. This new tool has been developed specifically for National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Orion Multi‐Purpose Crew Vehicle storm shelter environment but could easily be extended to other vehicles. The methodology for estimating SEP organ doses is evaluated and assessed in this paper, and a simulation of the acute radiation responses in the Multi‐Purpose Crew Vehicle storm shelter is shown for the historical October 1989 SEP event. The operational acute radiation risk model will be utilized on National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Exploration Mission 1 and Exploration Mission 2.

A comparison of the forces on dome and prism for straight and tornadic wind using CFD model

Tornadoes are vertical swirling air formed because of the existence of layers of air with contrasting features of temperature, wind flow, moisture, and density. Tornadoes induce completely different wind forces than a straight-line (SL) wind. A suitably designed building for an SL wind may fail when exposed to a tornado-wind of the same wind speed. It is necessary to design buildings that are more resistant to tornadoes. In tornado-damaged areas, dome buildings seem to have less damage. As a dome structure is naturally wind resistant, domes have been used in back yards, as single family homes, as in-law quarters, man caves, game rooms, storm shelters, etc. However, little attention has been paid to the tornadic wind interactions with dome buildings. In this work, the tornado forces on a dome are computed using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for tornadic and SL wind. Then, the interaction of a tornado with a dome and a prism building are compared and analyzed. This work describes the results of the tornado wind effect on dome and prism buildings. The conclusions drawn from this study are illustrated in visualizations. The tornado force coefficients on a dome building are larger than SL wind forces, about 120% more in x- and y-directions and 280% more in z-direction. The tornado maximum pressure coefficients are also higher than SL wind by 150%. The tornado force coefficients on the prism are larger than the forces on the dome, about 100% more in x- and y-directions, and about 180% more in z-direction. The tornado maximum pressure coefficients on prism also are greater those on dome by 150% more. Hence, a dome building has less tornadic load than a prism because of its aerodynamic shape.

GIS-based regression modeling of the extreme weather patterns in Arkansas, USA

BackgroundInvestigating the extreme weather patterns (EWP) in Arkansas can help policy makers and the Arkansas Department of Emergency Management in establishing polices and making informed decisions regarding hazard mitigation. Previous studies have posed a question whether local topography and landcover control EWP in Arkansas. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to characterize factors influencing EWP in a Geographic Information System (GIS) and provide a statistically justifiable means for improving building codes and establishing public storm shelters in disaster-prone areas in the State of Arkansas. The extreme weather events including tornadoes, derechos, and hail that have occurred during 1955–2015 are considered in this study.ResultsOur GIS-based regression analysis provides statistically robust indications that explanatory variables (elevation, topographic protection, landcover, time of day, month, and mobile homes) strongly influence EWP in Arkansas, with the caveat that hazardous weather frequency is congruent to magnitude.ConclusionsResults indicate a crucial need for raising standards of building codes in high severity regions in Arkansas. Topography and landcover are directly influencing EWP, consequently they make future events a question of “when” not “where” they will reoccur.

Bending to the water's will.

In flood-prone Bangladesh, resilience can mean letting water have its way.