Household Water Storage Research Articles

Survey and inspection of household water storage containers to find out presence of mosquito larvae and study of socio behavioural factors leading to positive larval indices in urban households of Sagar city of Madhya Pradesh

Survey and inspection of household water storage containers to find out presence of mosquito larvae and study of socio behavioural factors leading to positive larval indices in urban households of Sagar city of Madhya Pradesh

Contamination Potentials of Household Water Handling and Storage Practices in Kirundo Subcounty, Kisoro District, Uganda.

Introduction Waterborne diseases constitute a major public health burden in developing and underdeveloped countries. Consumption of contaminated water causes health risk to the public, and the situation is alarming in rural areas. The objective of this study was to assess the contamination potentials of different house water handling and storage practices in the Kirundo subcounty, Kisoro District, Uganda. Material and Methods A cross-sectional and descriptive study in which 344 water samples were collected randomly and analysed for bacteriological contamination, total coliforms (TCs) and Escherichia coli per 100 ml, using the Most Probable Number (MPN) technique and reported in terms of CFU/100 ml. Results The 43.2% samples from unprotected water sources had total coliforms and 34.1% had Escherichia coli. In analysed household drinking water, 25% had total coliforms and 8.7% had Escherichia coli. Most drinking water sources were found to have coliform counts above the recommended national and international guidelines. There was a statistically significant difference among water sources with respect to total coliforms and Escherichia coli (p < 0.05). Conclusion The overall results indicated that there is a strong linkage between microbiological water quality and water source sanitation; hence, the protected water source was safer than unprotected water sources. For the unprotected water sources, protection strategies as well as monitoring are recommended for this community.

A culture-dependent and metagenomic approach of household drinking water from the source to point of use in a developing country

Rural households in developing countries rely on communal water supplies and household water frequently becomes contaminated following its collection, transportation and during its storage. Using culture-dependent and -independent techniques, we examined the changes in microbial water quality between communal tap water and household water storage in a rural area of Cameroon, Africa. The culturable fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) were used to assess the potential health risks associated with different household water storage conditions (e.g., type of container and open vs. closed container) and interventions (e.g., water storage days, cleaned on the last day of use, and hygiene practices). Only the amount of days the water was stored significantly differed (p-value < 0.05), which showed that potential health risks increased when water was stored for more than 3 days. The higher abundance of molecular FIB in biofilm than household water suggested that omnipresent biofilm in household water could potential health risk. The high-throughput sequencing revealed that the most abundant phylum was Proteobacteria, followed by Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes in both the water and the biofilm samples. Bacterial genera seen in biofilm bacteria, such as Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and Comamonas. Acinetobacter, Chryseobacterium, Stenotrophomonas and Corynebacterium, were relatively more abundant in the biofilm than in the water. Potential bacterial pathogens including Acinetobacter baumannii, Citrobacter freundii, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Haemophilus influenza, were detected in household water and biofilm. The microbial quality might be affected by water-storage time and households repeatedly using the same water storage containers without proper sanitization, triggering microbial regrowth and biofilm formation on water containers. Higher bacterial diversity and potentially pathogenic bacteria found in the biofilm samples of a household water supply are unhealthy for the house’s inhabitants. It is important to develop interventions aimed at preventing the formation of these dangerous biofilms in a communal water supply.

Acute Flavivirus and Alphavirus Infections among Children in Two Different Areas of Kenya, 2015.

Alphaviruses and flaviviruses are known to be endemic in Eastern Africa, but few data are available to evaluate the prevalence of these infections. This leads to missed opportunities for prevention against future outbreaks. This cohort study investigated the frequency of alphavirus and flavivirus incident infections in two regions of Kenya and identified potential risk factors. Seroconversions for alphavirus and flavivirus infections were identified by immunoglobulin G enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IgG-ELISA) in a cohort of 1,604 acutely ill children over the year 2015. The annual incidence was 0.5% (0.2-1.2%) for alphaviruses and 1.2% (0.7-2.2%) for flaviviruses. Overall, seroprevalence was significantly higher for alphaviruses in western Kenya than on the coast (P = 0.014), whereas flavivirus seroprevalence was higher on the coast (P = 0.044). Poverty indicators did not emerge as risk factors, but reliance on household water storage was associated with increased exposure to both alphaviruses and flaviviruses (odds ratio = 2.3).

Users’ Perceptions on Drinking Water Quality and Household Water Treatment and Storage in Small Towns in Northwestern Tanzania

Despite recent progress in increasing the world’s population with sustainable access to safe drinking water, hundreds of millions still rely on unimproved sources. To improve the quality of drinking water, various household water treatment and safe storage methods have been developed, adopted and promoted as alternative interventions. However, there is paucity of information regarding drinking water quality and prevalence of HWTS practices especially from the users’ perspectives in Tanzania. This paper examines users’ perceptions on drinking water quality and household water treatment and storage practices in the selected towns of Misungwi, Magu and Lamadi in Northwestern Tanzania. The specific objectives of the study were 1) to examine users’ perceptions on drinking water quality, and 2) to identify household water treatment and storage methods used in the study towns. The paper is based on empirical primary and secondary data collected from 417 households, through survey, key informant interviews, observation and documentary review, and analysed for descriptive statistics, chi-square tests and qualitative content analysis. The study found that water supply coverage in the study towns was generally low. Households drew water from various sources, including ones which were not suitable for drinking. This necessitated households to improve the quality of their drinking water through HWTS practices. Although a combination of adequate and inadequate treatment methods was used to improve water quality and aesthetics, prevalence of HWT practices was generally low. Similarly, safe storage was rarely practiced. Therefore, interventions aimed at improving access to domestic water supply should also incorporate elements of water treatment and safe storage at the point of use to contribute to improved health outcomes.

Living in a city without water: A social practice theory analysis of resource disruption in Gaborone, Botswana

Abstract Using social practice theory, this study examines what happens to everyday household water-use practices when water in a city stops flowing, as it did in Botswana’s capital city of Gaborone in 2015. Our study investigates changes in the conventions of cleanliness, comfort and convenience and how water-use practices evolved, and spread and how old practices were revived in times of need. Our research illustrates how water supply infrastructure shapes and separates daily water-use practices such as washing, bathing and cooking within the household and locks-in a co-evolution of unsustainable supply and demand. Our analysis brings into view the container technologies that became essential for survival and identifies the possibilities and challenges of containers for reconnecting water and water-use practices within the household. It is concluded that residents of Gaborone were highly adaptable and resourceful in reconfiguring new water-use practices, but would have coped better if water managers had been more supportive of co-provision and provided advice and support for safe household water sourcing and storage. With the limitations of large-scale supply-driven water infrastructure increasingly evident, and resilience often focused simply on household water tanks, this research highlights the potential for (re)designing container technologies within the household to (re)connect water-use practices and hold, slow down, redirect and re-use different types of water, rather than the single-use paradigm of using drinking quality water for every task in a way that allows that high quality water to simply drain away.

Household-stored drinking water quality among households of under-five children with and without acute diarrhea in towns of Wegera District, in North Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia

Contamination of drinking water in household water storage containers and inadequate water supplies are common public burdens in low- and middle-income countries, including towns in Wegera District, Ethiopia. Our study aimed to assess the quality of drinking water and identify factors associated with diarrhea in households with under-five (U5) children with and without diarrhea in Ambagiorgis and Gedebge towns in Wegera District. Stored drinking water samples from households with U5 children with and without diarrhea had fecal coliform (FC) counts of 59 (86.8%) and 55 (82.1%) (p > 0.05) and fecal streptococci (FS) counts of 29 (42.7%) and 24 (35.8%) (p > 0.05), respectively. The very high sanitary risk scores were 32 (47.1%) and 21 (31.3%) for FC (p > 0.05); 25 (36.8%) and 3 (4.5%) for FS (p < 0.001), respectively. Contamination of the stored drinking water samples with FS was significantly higher in households with diarrhetic U5 children in the low- and medium-risk ranges (p < 0.05). Water turbidity of 47 (69.1%) and 23 (34.3%) in households with U5 children with and without diarrhea, respectively, was above the permissible level (p < 0.001). The residual free chlorine (RFC) in all the household-stored drinking water samples was below the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible level and temperatures of all the household-stored drinking water samples were permissible. Promotion and advocacy of good stored drinking water handling practices are essential for decreasing the high risk of microbial contamination in both study areas. We recommend education interventions targeting personal hygiene and drinking water handling at the household level.

An evaluation of a bucket chlorination campaign during a cholera outbreak in rural Cameroon.

Bucket chlorination (where workers stationed at water sources manually add chlorine solution to recipients' water containers during collection) is a common emergency response intervention with little evidence to support its effectiveness in preventing waterborne disease. We evaluated a bucket chlorination intervention implemented during a cholera outbreak by visiting 234 recipients' homes across five intervention villages to conduct an unannounced survey and test stored household drinking water for free chlorine residual (FCR). Overall, 89 per cent of survey respondents reported receiving bucket chlorination, and 80 per cent reported receiving the intervention in the previous 24 hours. However, only 8 per cent of stored household water samples that were reportedly treated only with bucket chlorination in the previous 24 hours had FCR ≥0.2 mg/l. Current international guidelines for bucket chlorination recommend an empirically derived dosage determined 30 minutes after chlorine addition, and do not account for water storage in the home. In controlled investigations we conducted, an initial FCR of 1.5 mg/l resulted in FCR ≥0.5 mg/l for 24 hours in representative household plastic and clay storage containers. To ensure reduction of the risk of waterborne disease, we recommend revising bucket chlorination protocols to recommend a chlorine dosage sufficient to maintain FCR ≥0.2 mg/l for 24 hours in recipients' household stored drinking water.

Assessing the Impact of a Risk-Based Intervention on Piped Water Quality in Rural Communities: The Case of Mid-Western Nepal.

Ensuring universal access to safe drinking water is a global challenge, especially in rural areas. This research aimed to assess the effectiveness of a risk-based strategy to improve drinking water safety for five gravity-fed piped schemes in rural communities of the Mid-Western Region of Nepal. The strategy was based on establishing community-led monitoring of the microbial water quality and the sanitary status of the schemes. The interventions examined included field-robust laboratories, centralized data management, targeted infrastructure improvements, household hygiene and filter promotion, and community training. The results indicate a statistically significant improvement in the microbial water quality eight months after intervention implementation, with the share of taps and household stored water containers meeting the international guidelines increasing from 7% to 50% and from 17% to 53%, respectively. At the study endline, all taps had a concentration of <10 CFU Escherichia coli/100 mL. These water quality improvements were driven by scheme-level chlorination, improved hygiene behavior, and the universal uptake of household water treatment. Sanitary inspection tools did not predict microbial water quality and, alone, are not sufficient for decision making. Implementation of this risk-based water safety strategy in remote rural communities can support efforts towards achieving universal water safety.

Effects of household drinking water choices, knowledge, practices and spatio-temporal trend on the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Enugu Urban, Nigeria

Background: The inadequacy of drinking water supply to households in Enugu Urban, Nigeria, has forced many to depend on unimproved water sources, thus, exposing them to infection by waterborne pathogens (WBP). Methods & Materials: A cross-sectional multi-stage sampling was adopted. Standard methods of stool samples examination was used to determine the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Well-structured close-ended questionnaire aided assessment of households’ drinking water choices, knowledge and practices. Retrospective records of waterborne diseases (WBD) from January, 2013 to December, 2016 were also reviewed. Results: A total of 403 samples were examined, 344 (85.4%) were infected with at least one WBP. Ordered by prevalence, nine genera of WBP were isolated: Escherichia (38.0%), Giardia (35.2%), Entamoeba (33.0%), Salmonella (19.9%), Proteus (13.2%), Shigella (9.4%), Klebsiella (7.4%), Enterobacter (5.5%) and Cryptosporidium (5.2%). Prevalence of WBP was highest in children within 0 - 5yrs (90.6%). Out of six communities, Ogui in Enugu North Local Government Area had the highest prevalence (91.5%) of WBP. Respondents who source their drinking water from “public wells” (OR = 2.487, CI95 1.296 -4.774), “borehole/vendors” (OR = 2.175, CI95 1.231–3.843), and those that have poor sanitation level (OR = 4.495, CI95 2.358–0.371) were significantly associated with increased odds of WBD (p < 0.05). Furthermore, having very good sanitation level (OR = 0.179, CI95 0.094–0.343), not storing drinking water (OR = 0.166, CI95 0.064–0.429), boiling drinking water (OR = 0.546, CI95 0.307–0.907), and always filtering drinking water (OR = 0.398, CI95 0.174–0.909) reduced the risk of WBD (p < 0.05). Analysis of retrospective records shows an increase in temporal trend from 2013-2015, with slight decrease in 2016. Conclusion: Against the background of this study, most households in Enugu Urban are vulnerable to consuming water contaminated at many points in their journey from source to mouth. This portrays the importance of adequate provision of safe drinking water, and need for appropriate “point of use” household water treatment and storage methods that will effectively curb the prevalence of WBD.

Influences of model structure and calibration data size on predicting chlorine residuals in water storage tanks

This study evaluated the influences of model structure and calibration data size on the modelling performance for the prediction of chlorine residuals in household drinking water storage tanks. The tank models, which consisted of two modules, i.e., hydraulic mixing and water quality modelling processes, were evaluated under identical calibration conditions. The hydraulic mixing modelling processes investigated included the continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) and multi-compartment (MC) methods, and the water quality modelling processes included first order (FO), single-reactant second order (SRSO), and variable reaction rate coefficients (VRRC) second order chlorine decay kinetics. Different combinations of these hydraulic mixing and water quality methods formed six tank models. Results show that by applying the same calibration datasets, the tank models that included the MC method for modelling the hydraulic mixing provided better predictions compared to the CSTR method. In terms of water quality modelling, VRRC kinetics showed better predictive abilities compared to FO and SRSO kinetics. It was also found that the overall tank model performance could be substantially improved when a proper method was chosen for the simulation of hydraulic mixing, i.e., the accuracy of the hydraulic mixing modelling plays a critical role in the accuracy of the tank model. Advances in water quality modelling improve the calibration process, i.e., the size of the datasets used for calibration could be reduced when a suitable kinetics method was applied. Although the accuracies of all six models increased with increasing calibration dataset size, the tank model that consisted of the MC and VRRC methods was the most suitable of the tank models as it could satisfactorily predict chlorine residuals in household tanks by using invariant parameters calibrated against the minimum dataset size.

Inhibition of biofilm formation on the surface of water storage containers using biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular and silver impregnated porous pot filtration systems

Development of biofilms occurring on the inner surface of storage vessels offers a suitable medium for the growth of microorganisms and consequently contributes to the deterioration of treated drinking water quality in homes. The aim of this study was to determine whether the two point-of-use technologies (biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular (BSZ-SICG) filter and silver-impregnated porous pot (SIPP) filter) deployed in a rural community of South Africa could inhibit the formation of biofilm on the surface of plastic-based containers generally used by rural households for the storage of their drinking water. Culture-based methods and molecular techniques were used to detect the indicator bacteria (Total coliforms, faecal coliform, E. coli) and pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae) in intake water and on the surface of storage vessels containing treated water. Scanning electron microscopy was also used to visualize the development of biofilm. Results revealed that the surface water source used by the Makwane community was heavily contaminated and harboured unacceptably high counts of bacteria (heterotrophic plate count: 4.4–4.3 Log10 CFU/100mL, total coliforms: 2.2 Log10 CFU/100 mL—2.1 Log10 CFU/100 mL, faecal coliforms: 1.9 Log10 CFU/100 mL—1.8 Log10 CFU/100 mL, E. coli: 1.7 Log10 CFU/100 mL—1.6 Log10 CFU/100 mL, Salmonella spp.: 3 Log10 CFU/100 mL -8 CFU/100 mL; Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae had 1.0 Log10 CFU/100 mL and 0.8 Log10 CFU/100 mL respectively). Biofilm formation was apparent on the surface of the storage containers with untreated water within 24 h. The silver nanoparticles embedded in the clay of the filtration systems provided an effective barrier for the inhibition of biofilm formation on the surface of household water storage containers. Biofilm formation occurred on the surface of storage plastic vessels containing drinking water treated with the SIPP filter between 14 and 21 days, and on those containing drinking water treated with the BSZ-SICG filter between 3 and 14 days. The attachment of target bacteria on the surface of the coupons inoculated in storage containers ranged from (0.07 CFU/cm2–227.8 CFU/cm2). To effectively prevent the development of biofilms on the surface of container-stored water, which can lead to the recontamination of treated water, plastic storage containers should be washed within 14 days for water treated with the SIPP filter and within 3 days for water treated with the BSZ-SICG filter.

Assessment of household water treatment and storage practices

Background: Maintenance of drinking-water quality is a pillar of primary prevention and continues to be the foundation for the prevention and control of waterborne diseases. Improved water supply and sanitation, and better management of water resources, can boost countries’ economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction. The objective of the study was to assess household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) practice.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted for a period of 2 months. Total of 250 household were surveyed under the UHTC. Data was collected using WHO toolkit for monitoring and evaluating household water treatment and safe storage programme. Descriptive analysis was done.Results: Majority had piped connection (32%) followed by public standpipe (31.2%), hand pump (27.6%) as source of water. 60% had knowledge about boiling followed by chlorination 27%, membrane filters 22.4%. Majority i.e. 63% of the participants had thought boiling as the best method for disinfection of drinking water.Conclusions: Majority had piped connection, Maximum kept water container clean and covered. Only one fourth of the total household surveyed suffered from diarrhea in last 6 months.

Assessing factors of E. coli contamination of household drinking water in suburban and rural Laos and Thailand

Abstract Drinking water (DW) can serve as a route for disease transmission if not properly managed. The study assessed the effect of different factors on Escherichia coli quantities in DW in household water storage containers in suburban and rural villages in Laos and Thailand. Higher E. coli concentrations in DW were found in Laos compared to Thailand, especially in households without toilets (in Laos) and in rural rather than in suburban villages. In suburban Laos, house material, storage container types and lack of toilets were significantly associated with E. coli contamination of DW, whereas in rural Laos, corresponding significant factors were rain-fed water, containers with lids and lack of toilets. In suburban Thailand, rain-fed water, storage container types and container cleaning frequency were significantly associated with DW contamination, while house materials, manually collected rainwater and container cleaning frequency were associated with contamination in rural Thailand. Socio-demographic characteristics were less associated with E. coli contamination of DW in this study. Treatment of household stored water (e.g. boiling), regular cleaning of rain jars as well as the provision of household toilets, especially in Laos, can provide barriers against E. coli contamination of DW.

English

Access to safe water is a universal need. However, many of the world&rsquo;s population lack access to adequate and safe water. Consumption of contaminated water with viruses, bacteria and parasites causes health risk to the public and the situation is serious in rural areas. So this study is aimed at assessing the bacteriological quality of drinking water at source and point of use among rural Communities of Farta Woreda, North Western, Ethiopia. A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted in March 2014 in 41 rural Kebeles of Farta Woreda. A total of 120 water samples were obtained from protected water sources and household water storage containers and tested for Escherichia coli by using membrane filter methods. The contaminant risk of water sources and household storage containers were assessed by sanitary inspection checklist of World health Organization. Descriptive statistics (proportion and percentage) were used to count the E. coli load and the results were interpreted using World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water quality. All household water storage containers and majority 22(91.7%)&nbsp; of the protected wells and 5(83.3%) springs in the study area were not in compliance with WHO recommended values (0 CFU/100 ml of drinking water) for drinking water. Majority 10(41.7%) of protected well, 5(83.3%) protected spring and 42(46.7%) household storage containers had high sanitary risk score for E. coli. The water sources and also household water storage containers were heavily contaminated with E. coli. Source protection strategies, awareness creation on safe water handling practices as well as monitoring are necessary to enhance good drinking water quality. &nbsp; Key words: Drinking water, E-coli, bacteriological quality, rural community, storage container.

Camino Verde (The Green Way): evidence-based community mobilisation for dengue control in Nicaragua and Mexico: feasibility study and study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BackgroundSince the Aedes aegypti mosquitoes that transmit dengue virus can breed in clean water, WHO-endorsed vector control strategies place sachets of organophosphate pesticide, temephos (Abate), in household water storage containers. These and other pesticide-dependent approaches have failed to curb the spread of dengue and multiple dengue virus serotypes continue to spread throughout tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. A feasibility study in Managua, Nicaragua, generated instruments, intervention protocols, training schedules and impact assessment tools for a cluster randomised controlled trial of community-based approaches to vector control comprising an alternative strategy for dengue prevention and control in Nicaragua and Mexico.Methods/DesignThe Camino Verde (Green Way) is a pragmatic parallel group trial of pesticide-free dengue vector control, adding effectiveness to the standard government dengue control. A random sample from the most recent census in three coastal regions of Guerrero state in Mexico will generate 90 study clusters and the equivalent sampling frame in Managua, Nicaragua will generate 60 clusters, making a total of 150 clusters each of 137–140 households. After a baseline study, computer-driven randomisation will allocate to intervention one half of the sites, stratified by country, evidence of recent dengue virus infection in children aged 3–9 years and, in Nicaragua, level of community organisation. Following a common evidence-based education protocol, each cluster will develop and implement its own collective interventions including house-to-house visits, school-based programmes and inter-community visits. After 18 months, a follow-up study will compare dengue history, serological evidence of recent dengue virus infection (via measurement of anti-dengue virus antibodies in saliva samples) and entomological indices between intervention and control sites.DiscussionOur hypothesis is that informed community mobilisation adds effectiveness in controlling dengue.Trial registrationISRCTN27581154.

Effects of socio-demographic characteristics and household water management on Aedes aegypti production in suburban and rural villages in Laos and Thailand

BackgroundDengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease accounting for 50–100 million annual cases globally. Laos and Thailand are countries in south-east Asia where the disease is endemic in both urban and rural areas. Household water storage containers, which are favourable breeding sites for dengue mosquitoes, are common in these areas, due to intermittent or limited access to water supply. This study assessed the effect of household water management and socio-demographic risk factors on Aedes aegypti infestation of water storage containers.MethodsA cross-sectional survey of 239 households in Laos (124 suburban and 115 rural), and 248 households in Thailand (127 suburban and 121 rural) was conducted. Entomological surveys alongside semi-structured interviews and observations were conducted to obtain information on Ae. aegypti infestation, socio-demographic factors and water management. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression models were used to assess risk factors associated with Ae. aegypti pupal infestation.ResultsHousehold water management rather than socio-demographic factors were more likely to be associated with the infestation of water containers with Ae. aegypti pupae. Factors that was significantly associated with Ae. aegypti infestation were tanks, less frequent cleaning of containers, containers without lids, and containers located outdoors or in toilets/bathrooms.ConclusionsAssociations between Ae. aegypti pupae infestation, household water management, and socio-demographic factors were found, with risk factors for Ae. aegypti infestation being specific to each study setting. Most of the containers did not have lids, larvicides, such as temephos was seldom used, and containers were not cleaned regularly; factors are facilitating dengue vector proliferation. It is recommended that, in Lao villages, health messages should promote proper use and maintenance of tightly fitted lids, and temephos in tanks, which were the most infested containers. Recommendations for Thailand are that small water containers should be cleaned weekly. Furthermore, in addition to health messages on dengue control provided to communities, attention should be paid to larval control for indoor containers in rural villages. Temephos or other immature control measures such as the use of pyriproxyfen, antilarval bacteria, or larvivorous fish should be used where temephos resistance is prevalent. Dengue control is not possible without additional adult mosquito control and community participation.

Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections and associated risk factors among schoolchildren in the Plateau Central and Centre-Ouest regions of Burkina Faso.

BackgroundUnsafe drinking water, unimproved sanitation and lack of hygiene pose health risks, particularly to children in low- and middle-income countries. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and risk factors of intestinal parasitic infections in school-aged children in two regions of Burkina Faso.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was carried out in February 2015 with 385 children aged 8–14 years from eight randomly selected schools in the Plateau Central and Centre-Ouest regions of Burkina Faso. Stool samples were subjected to the Kato-Katz and a formalin-ether concentration method for the diagnosis of helminths and intestinal protozoa infections. Urine samples were examined with a urine filtration technique for Schistosoma haematobium eggs. Water samples from community sources (n = 37), children’s households (n = 95) and children’s drinking water cups (n = 113) were analysed for contamination with coliform bacteria and faecal streptococci. Data on individual and family-level risk factors were obtained using a questionnaire. Mixed logistic regression models were employed to determine factors associated with intestinal parasitic infections in schoolchildren.ResultsIntestinal parasitic infections were highly prevalent; 84.7 % of the children harboured intestinal protozoa, while helminth infections were diagnosed in 10.7 % of the children. We found significantly lower odds of pathogenic intestinal protozoa infection (Entamoeba histolytica/E. dispar and Giardia intestinalis) among children from the Plateau Central, compared to the Centre-Ouest region (P < 0.001). Children from households with “freely roaming domestic animals” (P = 0.008), particularly dogs (P = 0.016) showed higher odds of G. intestinalis, and children reporting exposure to freshwater sources through domestic chores had higher odds of S. haematobium infection compared to children without this water contact activity (P = 0.035). Water quality, household drinking water source and storage did not emerge as significant risk factors for intestinal parasitic infections in children.ConclusionsIntestinal protozoa but not helminths were highly prevalent among schoolchildren in randomly selected schools in two regions of Burkina Faso. Our findings call for specific public health measures tailored to school-aged children and rural communities in this part of Burkina Faso. It will be interesting to assess the effect of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions on the transmission of intestinal parasitic infections.Trial registration ISRCTN17968589 (date assigned: 17 July 2015).Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1835-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Assessment of drinking water quality and rural household water treatment in Balaka District, Malawi

Access to drinking water from unsafe sources is widespread amongst communities in rural areas such as Balaka District in Malawi. This situation puts many individuals and communities at risk of waterborne diseases despite some households adopting household water treatment to improve the quality of the water. However, there still remains data gaps regarding the quality of drinking water from such sources and the household water treatment methods used to improve public health. This study was, therefore, conducted to help bridge the knowledge gap by evaluating drinking water quality and adoption rate of household water treatment and storage (HWTS) practices in Nkaya, Balaka District. Water samples were collected from eleven systematically selected sites and analyzed for physico-chemical and microbiological parameters: pH, TDS, electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, F−, Cl−, NO3−, Na, K, Fe, Faecal Coliform (FC) and Faecal Streptococcus (FS) bacteria using standard methods. The mean results were compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) and Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS) (MS 733:2005) to ascertain the water quality for drinking purposes. A total of 204 randomly selected households were interviewed to determine their access to drinking water, water quality perception and HWTS among others. The majority of households (72%, n = 83) in Njerenje accessed water from shallow wells and rivers whilst in Phimbi boreholes were commonly used. Several households (>95%, n = 204) were observed to be practicing HWST techniques by boiling or chlorination and water storage in closed containers. The levels of pH (7.10–7.64), F− (0.89–1.46 mg/L), Cl− (5.45–89.84 mg/L), NO3− (0–0.16 mg/L), Na (20–490 mg/L), K (2.40–14 mg/L) and Fe (0.10–0.40 mg/L) for most sites were within the standard limits. The EC (358–2220 μS/cm), turbidity (0.54–14.60 NTU), FC (0–56 cfu/100 mL) and FS (0–120 cfu/100 mL) - mainly in shallow wells, were found to be above the WHO and MBS water quality specifications. The majority of the water samples (73%, n = 11) were classified as of “Intermediate risk” (FC 11–100 cfu/100 mL), hence not suitable for human consumption without prior treatment. This calls for large scale adoption of HWTS and continued monitoring of the water sources used in the study areas.

Disinfection of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by copper in water.

When households lack access to continuous piped water, water storage in the home creates opportunities for contamination. Storage in copper vessels has been shown to reduce microbes, but inactivation kinetics of enteric bacteria in water by copper alone needs to be understood. This work characterized inactivation kinetics of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by dissolved ionic copper in water. Reductions of E. coli and P. aeruginosa increase with increasing dose. At 0.3 mg/L, there was a 2.5 log10 reduction of E. coli within 6 hours. At 1 and 3 mg/L, the detection limit was reached between 3 and 6 hours; maximum reduction measured was 8.5 log10. For P. aeruginosa, at 6 hours there was 1 log10 reduction at 0.3 mg/L, 3.0 log10 at 1 mg/L, and 3.6 log10 at 3 mg/L. There was no significant decline in copper concentration. Copper inactivates bacteria under controlled conditions at doses between 0.3 and 1 mg/L. E. coli was inactivated more rapidly than P. aeruginosa. Copper at 1 mg/L can achieve 99.9% inactivation of P. aeruginosa and 99.9999997% inactivation of E. coli over 6 hours, making it a candidate treatment for stored household water.