Anion Storage Research Articles

Charge Separation Induced by Asymmetric Surface Charge Effects in Quasi‐Solid State Electrolyte for Sustainable Anion Storage

AbstractCompared with conventional lithium‐ion battery systems, anion‐intercalation in graphite cathodes opens avenues for the development of batteries with groundbreaking power density. This study explores the enhancement of dual‐ion batteries (DIBs) by gel polymer electrolyte (GPE) enhanced with surface‐charged nanoclays, focusing on overcoming traditional challenges such as electrolyte decomposition, anion‐solvent co‐intercalation, and interfacial instability at the graphite cathode. Three nanoclays including montmorillonite, kaolinite, and halloysite are compared by incorporating them into GPE and evaluating their effect on the electrochemical properties, ion conduction, and mechanical integrity of DIBs. Particular attention is paid to the halloysite because of its differential internal and external surface charges, which generate charge separation, facilitate optimal lithium‐ion transport, and mitigate undesirable anion‐solvent interactions. These results indicate that halloysite‐incorporated GPE (HS‐G) significantly improves DIB performance, as demonstrated by extended cycle life, robust capacity retention at fast charge/discharge rates of 20 C, and operational stability over a wide temperature range (0–60 °C). These improvements are attributed to the unique structural advantages of HS‐G, including effective charge separation, enhanced anion diffusion, and reduced solvent co‐intercalation, which provide an environmentally friendly and cost‐effective approach to advanced DIB applications.

Template-directed strategy synthesis of CoNi-layered double hydroxide nanosheet coated with polypyrrole for enhanced capacitive deionization

Recently, faradic material layered double hydroxide (LDH) has been widely used as an anode for capacitive desalination (CDI), due to its reversible ion insertion/deintercalation process and high anion storage capacity. Unfortunately, the issues of poor conductivity and self-stacking of LDH limit its application in the CDI. Herein, CoNi-LDH coated with polypyrrole (PPy) was meticulously designed and synthesized PPy@CoNi-LDH nanohybrids using ZIF-67 as the precursor by template-directed strategy and in-situ polymerization. The CoNi-LDH has large interlayer distance of 0.91 nm, which is beneficial for ion insertion. Introduced PPy conductive layer improved the interface transfer rate of charges and increased the ion storage capacity of composite. The experimental test results indicate that PPy@CoNi-LDH1:1 electrode has a higher specific capacitance of 223.1F g−1 and lower resistivity of 62.33 Ω·cm compared to CoNi-LDH electrode (35.2F g−1 and 3.39 × 104 Ω·cm). Obtained PPy@CoNi-LDH1:1 also has abundant mesoporous and excellent hydrophilicity, which can promote ions transfer. Meanwhile, the specific surface area of PPy@CoNi-LDH1:1 with the coating structure is 1.78 times that of CoNi-LDH, effectively suppressing the self-stacking of CoNi-LDH and exposing more active sites. When employed PPy@CoNi-LDH1:1 as an anode and the activated carbon as a cathode, the PPy@CoNi-LDH1:1//AC cell exhibited a high Cl− removal capacity (60.20 mg g−1), a swift Cl− removal rate (11.45 mg g−1 min−1) and good cycling stability (the retention rate is 89.67 % after 50 cycles) in NaCl solution of 500 mg L−1 and 1.4 V applied voltage. Additionally, the adsorption mechanism indicated that surface charge attraction, ligand exchange, and ion insertion jointly promote the Cl− removal. This study provides a feasible solution about successful design of high adsorption capacity anode materials for CDI.

Anion Storing Boron Nitride Hybrid Nanosheets for High-Performance Dual Ion and Zinc Alkaline Full Cells.

Hexagonal boron nitride (BN), a well-known member of 2D materials, has a structure similar to graphene and is often referred to as white graphene. Despite its unique physical and chemical properties for energy storage applications, there have been very few studies on how BN stores anion carriers. Herein, the hybrid architecture and anion storage mechanism of BN nanosheets for high-performance hybrid energy storage full cells based on dual-ion and Zinc (Zn) alkaline systems is demonstrated. The chemical bonding between BN and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is attributed to the formation of the heterointerface, which facilitates the charge transfer kinetics during an OH storing process. Based on the reversible surface redox reaction of BN and rGO hybrid (BN@rGO) confirmed by computational and spectroscopic analyses, the BN@rGO electrode is applied to both Na and OH dual-ion and Zn alkaline full cells. In the dual-ion system, Ti3C2‖BN@rGO full cells extended the operating voltage range up to 1.7V, delivering a cell capacity of 49.4mAhg-1 at 1000mAg-1 and retaining 80% of its initial capacity after 40000 cycles. In the Zn alkaline system, Zn‖BN@rGO full cells achieved a cell capacity of 58.1mAhg-1 at 1000mAg-1 and retained 80% capacity over 90000 cycles.

Regulating the Porosity and Bipolarity of Polyimide-Based Covalent Organic Framework for Advanced Aqueous Dual-Ion Symmetric Batteries.

The all-organic aqueous dual-ion batteries (ADIBs) have attracted increasing attention due to the low cost and high safety. However, the solubility and unstable activity of organic electrodes restrict the synergistic storage of anions and cations in the symmetric ADIBs. Herein, a novel polyimide-based covalent organic framework (labeled as NTPI-COF) is constructed, featured with the boosted structure stability and electronic conductivity. Through regulating the porosity and bipolarity integrally, the NTPI-COF possesses hierarchical porous structure (mesopore and micropore) and abundant bipolar active centers (C═O and C─N), which exhibits rapid dual-ion transport and storage effects. As a result, the NTPI-COF as the electrodes for ADIBs deliver a high reversible capacity of 109.7mAhg-1 for Na+ storage and that of 74.8mAhg-1 for Cl- storage at 1Ag-1, respectively, and with a capacity retention of 93.2% over 10000 cycles at 10Ag-1. Additionally, the all-organic ADIBs with symmetric NTPI-COF electrodes achieve an impressive energy density of up to 148Whkg-1 and a high power density of 2600Wkg-1. Coupling the bipolarity and porosity of the all-organic electrodes applied in ADIBs will further advance the development of low-cost and large-scale energy storage.

Rechargeable Seawater-Based Chloride-Ion Batteries Enabled by Covalent Surface Chemistry in MXenes.

Rechargeable aqueous chloride-ion batteries (ACIBs) using Cl- ions as charge carriers represent a promising energy-storage technology, especially when natural seawater is introduced as the electrolyte, which can bring remarkable advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, safety, and environmental sustainability. However, the implementation of this technology is hindered by the scarcity of electrodes capable of reversible chloride-anion storage. Here, we show that a Ti3C2Clx MXene with Cl surface terminations enables reversible Cl- ion storage in aqueous electrolytes. Further, we developed seawater-based ACIBs that show a high specific capacity and an exceptionally long lifespan (40000 cycles, more than 1 year) in natural seawater electrolyte. The pouch-type cells achieve a high energy density (50 Wh Lcell-1) and maintain stable performance across a broad temperature range (-20 to 50 °C). Our investigations reveal that the covalent interaction between Cl- ions and Cl-terminated MXene facilitates Cl- ion intercalation into the MXene interlayer, promoting rapid ion migration with a low energy barrier (0.10 eV). Moreover, this MXene variant also enables the reversible storage of Br- ions in an aqueous electrolyte with a long cycle life. This study may advance the design of anion storage electrodes and enable the development of sustainable aqueous batteries.

Realized Record Capacity and Rate Performance of Dual-Carbon Batteries Constructed by Introducing Superhard Nanodiamonds.

Dual-ion batteries (DIBs) are becoming an important technology for energy storage. To overcome the disadvantages of traditional electrodes and electrolytes, here we assemble a dual-carbon DIB with nanodiamond (ND)-modified crimped graphene (DCG) and electrolyte. The DCG anode and cathode realize high capacities of 1121 mA h g-1 and 149 mA h g-1, respectively, at 0.1 A g-1. The corresponding DCG//DCG full cells present a high capacity of 143 mA h g-1 at 1 A g-1 after 3300 cycles, which is superior to most reported results. Achieving these record performances is strongly dependent on the formed DCG electrodes with expanded interlayer spacing and abundant active sites, and NDs dispersed in DCG and electrolytes are very helpful for enhancing the storage of both cations and anions, effectively suppressing the irreversible decomposition of electrolytes. This work breaks through the bottleneck of graphitic-based DIBs, paving the way for realizing high-performance DIBs applied in industry.

Unraveling the Irreversible Storage of Dimethyl Carbonate-Solvated Hexafluorophosphate Anions in Graphite Electrode.

LiPF6 dissolved in dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is one of the cheapest groups of electrolyte solutions in dual-ion batteries. Generally, the discharge capacity of anion storage delivered by the graphite cathode grows with increasing LiPF6 concentration. This fact is consistent with the irreversible storage of DMC-solvated PF6-, and then, the underlying mechanism is clarified by the electrochemical tests and ex situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements of graphite cathodes as well as infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy characterizations of solutions. Moreover, quaternary ammonium salts have facile dissociation, which can effectively regulate the solvation state of the anion and the interaction between ion pairs in the electrolyte. A small amount of tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF6) is introduced into the highly concentrated LiPF6-DMC solution to improve the performance of the graphite cathode. The discharge capacity of the Li/graphite cell has increased by approximately 50%. This effect is also correlated with the solvation state of the anion. This study provides an insightful clue for the choice of electrolyte solution in dual-ion batteries.

An anode-free sodium dual-ion battery

Batteries with both high energy and power densities are desired for practical applications. Constructing anode-free batteries is effective to achieve high energy density, yet remains highly challenging to obtain high power density simultaneously. To overcome this dilemma, dual-ion storage strategy is introduced to anode-free battery. As a proof of concept, an anode-free sodium dual-ion battery (AFSDIB) with combined high energy and power densities is successfully fabricated. Plasma-treated current collector (Al/N-C) exhibits a sodiophilic N-doped carbon surface, enabling highly reversible Na plating/stripping at high current densities. Meanwhile, the sluggish desolvation process is intrinsically eliminated at the polytriphenylamine (PTPAn) cathodic side owing to the solvation-free anion storage chemistry. Consequently, the assembled Al/N-C||PTPAn AFSDIB exhibits a remarkable energy density over 380 Wh kg−1 (at 375 W kg−1) and power density above 1800 W kg−1 (at 302 Wh kg−1) based on active materials and consumed electrolyte, which is superior to the reported state-of-the-art anode-free and dual-ion sodium batteries. This work paves a new pathway for developing batteries with both high energy and power densities.

Electrochemical studies on chromium doped SrTiO3 for supercapacitor applications

Perovskite oxides have garnered significant attention as potential active materials for supercapacitor applications. Recently, metal-doped perovskite oxides have gained prominence due to their potential to provide a synergistic blend of electrical conductivity, substantial electrochemical active surface area, and robust electrochemical activity. In this study, we systematically investigate the electrochemical properties of strontium titanate oxide (SrTiO3, STO) and chromium-doped strontium titanate oxide (Cr-STO), synthesized via the solid-state reaction method. Various material characterization techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), are employed to examine the crystal structure, morphology, and chemical composition of these samples. Notably, Cr-STO demonstrates an approximately twentyfold increase in electrochemical surface area compared to pristine STO, resulting in enhanced anion storage capabilities when employed in alkaline 3 M KOH aqueous electrolytes. Detailed electrochemical kinetic studies reveal an augmented pseudocapacitive behavior in Cr-STO, with a more pronounced diffusive nature compared to pristine STO. Furthermore, symmetric supercapacitors fabricated with Cr-STO electrodes exhibit excellent electrochemical performance, maintaining over 93 % of their initial capacity after 10,000 charge-discharge cycles at a current density of 1 A g−1. These findings highlight the significant potential of chromium-doped strontium titanate oxide as a valuable contribution to the ongoing pursuit of novel material for supercapacitors.

Anion storing, oxygen vacancy incorporated perovskite oxide composites for high-performance aqueous dual ion hybrid supercapacitors

Dual ion storage hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) are considered as a promising device to overcome the limited energy density of existing supercapacitors while preserving high power and long cyclability. However, the development of high-capacity anion-storing materials, which can be paired with fast charging capacitive electrodes, lags behind cation-storing counterparts. Herein, we demonstrate the surface faradaic OH− storage mechanism of anion storing perovskite oxide composites and their application in high-performance dual ion HSCs. The oxygen vacancy and nanoparticle size of the reduced LaMnO3 (r-LaMnO3) were controlled, while r-LaMnO3 was chemically coupled with ozonated carbon nanotubes (oCNTs) for the improved anion storing capacity and cycle performance. As taken by in-situ and ex-situ spectroscopic and computational analyses, OH− ions are inserted into the oxygen vacancies coordinating with octahedral Mn with the increase in the oxidation state of Mn during the charging process or vice versa. Configuring OH− storing r-LaMnO3/oCNT composite with Na+ storing MXene, the as-fabricated aqueous dual ion HSCs achieved the cycle performance of 73.3% over 10,000 cycles, delivering the maximum energy and power densities of 47.5 W h kg−1 and 8 kW kg−1, respectively, far exceeding those of previously reported aqueous anion and dual ion storage cells. This research establishes a foundation for the unique anion storage mechanism of the defect engineered perovskite oxides and the advancement of dual ion hybrid energy storage devices with high energy and power densities.

Supply of phosphorus and nitrogen affects both growth and development rates in onion

ABSTRACT The hypothesis that soil anion storage capacity (ASC) directly influences the response of onion yield to soil Olsen P status was tested. Onions were grown to maturity in three different soils in the same tunnel house. Each soil received three rates of phosphorus (P) fertiliser 1 month before planting, and at planting soil ASC and Olsen P status was measured. Although bulb yield increased with Olsen P (over the range 15–95 μg g−1), ASC (which varied from 10 to 70%) had no influence on this response. This supports recent findings with young onions grown in small pots, but contradicts previous advice to vegetable growers. The results show that low to moderate soil Olsen P values and low initial availability of N, slow early plant growth and development. Delays in maturity due low P input may allow growth to catch up, at least partially, later in the season. This has implications for the design and execution of field experiments to test P fertilisers for onions and suggests that visible responses to P fertiliser in young onion crops may be misleading.

Exploration of Electrode‐Electrolyte‐in‐One System Based on Fluorine/Chloride Ion Battery

AbstractWith an increasingly profound understanding of battery materials, strategies designed for interface protection have become more sophisticated. However, it is inherent that different materials used in electrodes and electrolytes tend to react with each other. To address this issue, this study proposes an “Electrode‐Electrolyte‐In‐One” (EEIO) concept, where a single energy storage material can serve as both electrode and solid‐state electrolyte (SSE) during its different ion storage stages. The EEIO materials of chloride ion batteries and fluorine ion batteries are preliminarily studied, establishing reasonable screening procedures and predicting their operational mechanisms. The analysis of Cl− and F− affinity indicates that the EEIO system in the anion storage batteries comprises the anode and SSE. Through comprehensive evaluation of ion binding capacity, phase transformation mechanism, electrical conductivity, and ion diffusion kinetic properties, several potential EEIO materials are identified. In the EEIO system, the material interface and the conductive‐insulation interface are separated, which solves the material compatibility problem between the anode and SSE. Furthermore, the EEIO system has an inherent correlation between the anode electrochemical reaction and the SSE decomposition reaction, ensuring that the electrochemical voltage of EEIO batteries never exceeds the decomposition voltage of SSE. Therefore, SSE in the EEIO battery has absolute electrochemical stability.

A donor-acceptor (D-A) conjugated polymer for fast storage of anions.

Organic electrode materials have attracted a lot interest in batteries in recent years. However, most of them still suffer from low performance such as low electrode potential, slow reaction kinetics, and short cycle life. In this work, we report a strategy of fabricating donor-acceptor (D-A) conjugated polymers for facilitating the charge transfer and therefore accelerating the reaction kinetics by using the copolymer (p-TTPZ) of dihydrophenazine (PZ) and thianthrene (TT) as a proof-of-concept. The D-A conjugated polymer as p-type cathode could store anions and exhibited high discharge voltages (two plateaus at 3.82 V, 3.16 V respectively), a reversible capacity of 152 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 , excellent rate performance with a high capacity of 124.2 mAh g-1 at 10 A g-1 (≈50 C) and remarkable cyclability. The performance, especially the rate capability was much higher than that of its counterpart homopolymers without D-A structure. As a result, the p-TTPZ//graphite full cells showed a high output voltage (3.26 V), a discharge specific capacity of 139.1 mAh g-1 at 0.05 A g-1 and excellent rate performance. This work provides a novel strategy for developing high performance organic electrode materials through molecular design and will pave a way towards high energy density organic batteries.

A donor–acceptor (D–A) conjugated polymer for fast storage of anions

AbstractOrganic electrode materials have attracted a lot interest in batteries in recent years. However, most of them still suffer from low performance such as low electrode potential, slow reaction kinetics, and short cycle life. In this work, we report a strategy of fabricating donor–acceptor (D–A) conjugated polymers for facilitating the charge transfer and therefore accelerating the reaction kinetics by using the copolymer (p‐TTPZ) of dihydrophenazine (PZ) and thianthrene (TT) as a proof‐of‐concept. The D–A conjugated polymer as p‐type cathode could store anions and exhibited high discharge voltages (two plateaus at 3.82 V, 3.16 V respectively), a reversible capacity of 152 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1, excellent rate performance with a high capacity of 124.2 mAh g−1 at 10 A g−1 (≈50 C) and remarkable cyclability. The performance, especially the rate capability was much higher than that of its counterpart homopolymers without D–A structure. As a result, the p‐TTPZ//graphite full cells showed a high output voltage (3.26 V), a discharge specific capacity of 139.1 mAh g−1 at 0.05 A g−1 and excellent rate performance. This work provides a novel strategy for developing high performance organic electrode materials through molecular design and will pave a way towards high energy density organic batteries.

Electrolyte-concentration dependent formation of artificial interface for prolonging the cycle life of Li-based anion storage batteries

The cycle life of anion-storing carbon cathodes suffers from parasitic side reactions on the electrode surface during high-voltage cycling. As a precautionary measure, the surface is protected by the artificial interface formed via electrochemical techniques using different concentrations of electrolytes. The chemical nature of the interfaces varies depending on the concentration of electrolyte, so the electrochemical performances. The interface formed in 0.3 M electrolyte is driven by the electrolyte solvent, rich in organic components (carbonates and phosphates), and undergoes dynamic changes during cycling, thereby yielding poor electrochemical performance. The percentages of inorganic components increase slightly in 1 M electrolyte and the cycling efficiencies improve to some extent. In contrast, the interface of 3 M electrolyte is dominated by the electrolyte salt (LiPF6)-derived inorganic products (LixPOy, POxFy, and CFx) and endows high-voltage protection to the greatest extent. The mechanochemically robust layer enhances interfacial stability, reduces side reactions, minimizes the growth of resistance, and safeguards the bulk of the material from premature failure. The modified electrode in 3 M electrolyte retains 85 % capacity after 500 cycles, while the unmodified electrode fails drastically within 50 cycles. The approach is equally applicable to LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 cathode that stores Li+ at high voltage.

Potassium-Based Dual-Ion Batteries Operating at -60 °C Enabled By Co-Intercalation Anode Chemistry.

Battery performance at subzero is restricted by sluggish interfacial kinetics. To resolve this issue, potassium-based dual-ion batteries (K-DIBs) based on the polytriphenylamine (PTPAn) cathode with anion storage chemistry and the hydrogen titanate (HTO) anode with K+ /solvent co-intercalation mechanism are constructed. Both the PTPAn cathode and the HTO anode do not undergo the desolvation process, which can effectively accelerate the interfacial kinetics at subzero. As revealed by theoretical calculations and experimental analysis, the strong K+ /solvent binding energy in the dilute electrolyte, the charge shielding effect of the crystal water, and the uniform SEI layer with high content of the flexible organic species synergically promote HTO to undergo K+ /solvent co-intercalation behavior. The special co-intercalation mechanism and anion storage chemistry enable HTO||PTPAn K-DIBs with superior rate performance and cycle durability, maintaining a capacity retention of 94.1% after 6000 cycles at -40 °C and 91% after 1000 cycles at -60 °C. These results provide a step forward for achieving high-performance energy storage devices at low temperatures.

Heterostructure of NiCoAl-layered double hydroxide nanosheet arrays assembled on MXene coupled with CNT as conductive bridge for enhanced capacitive deionization

Layered double hydroxide (LDH) is considered as an attractive capacitive deionization (CDI) faradic material for anion (such as Cl−) capture due to its excellent anion storage capacity, highly reversible anion (de)insertion and superior chemical stability. Nevertheless, the self-stacking property and poor conductivity of LDH lead to undesirable CDI performance. Herein, the CNT@NiCoAl-LDH@MXene heterostructure with three-dimensional (3D) interconnected network was rationally designed with MXene as the conductive substrate for the uniform and vertical growth of NiCoAl-LDH nanosheet arrays and CNT as the conductive bridge for fast electron transfer. Strong chemical bonding interactions were formed at the interface of this heterostructure, creating tighter and more stable interconnections. Moreover, the specific surface area of this unique arrays structure is 4.28 and 8.62 times that of NiCoAl-LDH and MXene, respectively, effectively suppressing the aggregation of layered materials and providing more exposed active sites. Therefore, the obtained CNT@NiCoAl-LDH@MXene electrode exhibits prominent specific capacitance (179F g−1), decreased equivalent series and transfer resistance, increased ion diffusion rate and splendid electrochemical stability (capacitance retention rate of 107.5 % after 1500 GCD cycles). Consequently, as employed for Cl− intercalation anode coupled with AC cathode for CDI, the CNT@NiCoAl-LDH@MXene//AC cell exhibited excellent Cl− removal capacity (79.5 mg g−1), higher charge efficiency (88.4 %), lower energy consumption (0.62 kWh kg−1-NaCl) and exceptional desalination capacity retention rate (96.4 % after 40 adsorption/desorption cycles). This work provides an excellent anode material selection for the enhancement of CDI performance and valuable insights for the design of 3D interconnected network heterostructure.

Structural Isomers: Small Change with Big Difference in Anion Storage

HighlightsThe effect of small changes in isomers on electrochemical performance have not been focused in batteries and two isomers are reported for Zn-ion batteries here. The isomer tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) could store two monovalent anions reversibly, showing remarkable performance that outperformed most of the reported organic electrode materials for zinc-ion batteries.The isomer tetrathianaphthalene (TTN) could only reversibly store one monovalent anion and upon further oxidation, it would undergo an irreversible solid-state molecular rearrangement to TTF.

Room-temperature fluoride ion batteries based on LDH@PPy composites

Fluoride-ion (F−) batteries (FIBs) are a high-energy, cost-effective and safe alternative to lithium-ion batteries because of multiple-electron redox reactions, abundance of resources and absence of dendrite issues. Layered double hydroxides based on transition metals offer intriguing promise as F−-storage electrodes but suffer from poor electrical conductivity. Herein, a new cathode material of FIBs was synthesized by in situ polymerization of pyrrole monomers on the surface of F− intercalated CoNi LDH (CoNi-F−-LDH) platelets. Without destroying its 2D channel and anion storage capacity, the overall electrical conductivity of CoNi-F−-LDH is improved. The resulting polypyrrole (PPy) coated CoNi-F−-LDH exhibits a reversible capacity of ∼ 60 mAh/g over 100 cycles at room-temperature, with a capacity retention of 86 %, superior to most of previously reported cathodes for FIBs. This work illustrates a potential pathway for updating LDH electrodes for room-temperature FIB chemistries.

Differences between cation and anion storage electrochemistry of graphite and its impact on dual graphite battery

The redox-amphoteric nature of graphite is tactically utilized to store cations and anions simultaneously in a dual graphite battery (DGB). The major differences between cation and anion storage electrochemistry of graphite are identified here and their impacts on the electrochemical performances of DGBs are analyzed. All the differences are found to originate primarily from ionic size mismatch (76 p.m. of Li+vs. 254 p.m. of PF6−) that further induces kinetic and thermodynamic limitations upon intercalation. The electrochemical studies reveal that the anion intercalation lags behind the cation because of a higher energy barrier for the interconversion among (PF6)Cx stages, the occurrence of a valley-type region in the discharge profile that delays deintercalation by 500 mV, dynamic changes in organic-rich cathode electrolyte interphase, and sluggish diffusion inside graphite bulk. In contrast, cation intercalation affects DGBs' performance negatively due to higher desolvation barriers and lithium plating on the anode surface at higher current densities. Therefore, the cathode limits the capacity and cycling efficiency, whereas the anode restricts cycle life and power density. This work also explores the strategies to mitigate the degradation pathways by electrolyte modification.