Building Stones Research Articles

The Economics of Roman Construction in Bracara Augusta (Braga, Portugal): Building Stone Identification and Working Costs

The Economics of Roman Construction in Bracara Augusta (Braga, Portugal): Building Stone Identification and Working Costs

Use of Computerised X-ray Tomography in the Study of the Fabrication Methods and Conservation of Ceramics, Glass and Stone Building Materials

This work will review and discuss the use of computerised X-ray tomography (CXT) for analysing ancient, manufactured items, like stone building materials, glass and ceramics. It will consider particular techniques required, and/or of benefit, for CXT of heritage materials, such as special precautions during the experimentation to ensure there is no damage to the materials, special imaging methods such as elemental-specific imaging, and sample-specific image analysis requirements. This study shows how the knowledge of internal features, particularly pores, discerned from CXT can be used to reverse engineer the artefact fabrication process. CXT can be used to obtain information on both the raw materials (such as types and impurities) and fabrication techniques used. These abilities can then be used to establish technological evolution and the incidence of ancient behaviours like recycling and allow the linking of particular items to specific production sites. It will also be seen how CXT can aid the development of effective conservation techniques. This work will also consider how conclusions drawn from CXT data can be amended or augmented by the use of complementary non-destructive characterisation methods, such as gas overcondensation.

The Effect of Salt Crystallization on Degradation of Limestones Used as Heritage Building Stone in Lorestan, Iran

The Effect of Salt Crystallization on Degradation of Limestones Used as Heritage Building Stone in Lorestan, Iran

Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)

Abstract Sokobanja is a well-known spa centre in East Serbia, whose popularity is mostly based on its natural heritage (thermo-mineral springs, waterfalls, canyons, caves, and pits). However, built heritage also offers significant potential for developing geotourism. This article aims to assess the geoheritage values of the geocultural site Sokograd fortress to support geotourism development in this area. For the assessment of geotourism potentials, the urban geoheritage assessment model (UGAM) was applied. To support the criteria of UGAM (e.g. variety of geodiversity and educational potentials), a macroscopic mineralogical–petrographical observation of the building stone was performed. The results revealed significant educational potentials, especially concerning petrodiversity, with sedimentary rocks (limestone, sandstone, tufa, and conglomerates). By comparing the obtained results with the local geology, it is recognized that the building stone was mainly of local provenance. The UGAM parameters, such as geocultural and ecological values, as well as a variety of geodiversity, confirmed that Sokograd has great potential for urban geotourism development. After all, the assessment of degradation risk was performed and revealed that tourism development cannot cause serious threats to the site, but tourism has to be adequately regulated and managed in a sustainable way. The results of this study can provide information to policymakers, local governments, and other interested stakeholders on whether and how to develop urban geotourism at the Sokograd fortress in the upcoming period.

Effects of fluid salinity and composition on subcritical crack growth in marble

Subcritical fracture growth of rocks in fluid-chemical environments played a crucial role in the weathering process of rocks and the preservation of stone building heritage. Fracture mechanics properties of marble under different fluid compositions and salinity conditions were investigated by carrying out double torsion tests. The subcritical crack growth index (SCI) exhibited different salinity dependencies in two salt solutions. In NaCl solution, the SCI decreased by 1.97 % – 40.50 % with increasing salinity due to the increase in solubility of calcite. The SCI decreased by 4.60 % and 14.01 % respectively as the Na2SO4 salinity increases from 0.01 mol/L to 1 mol/L, and then increased with the increase in salinity, which was related to the relationship between calcite solubility and salinity. Compared to Na2SO4 solution, the weakening effect of NaCl solution on Ka was smaller. In contrast, the fracture toughness (KIC) was insensitive to fluid composition and salinity in the short term, with KIC ranging from 0.65 to 0.79 MPa m1/2 in all salt solutions. The three-dimensional morphology results of the fracture surfaces indicated that the effect of salinity on the roughness of both fracture types was negligible. However, the microstructure of the marble was significantly affected by salinity, and apparent dissolution was observed. The results highlighted the dependence of the subcritical fracture behavior of marble on fluid chemistry, which had implications for the weathering assessment of stone masonry buildings and the permanent protection of stone heritage monuments. In these applications, fluid chemistry could either strengthen or weaken the rock, depending on variations in fluid composition and salinity.

Evaluating building stones: Physical-mechanical changes from high-temperature fire and water cooling

Heritage sites built with natural stone are at risk from fires, which can alter stone properties and compromise its structural integrity. Over 60 studies in the past three decades have examined fire impact on natural stone, providing insights for their prevention and restoration. The primary objectives are to develop effective strategies to mitigate fire risks, protect heritage structures, and ensure the preservation of our cultural legacy. Two noteworthy Portuguese limestones used as heritage building materials: Lioz (LL) and grey Ançã stone (GAS), were studied regarding the effect of high-temperature exposure for simulating fire at 200 °C, 400 °C and 600 °C, followed by cooling in water to reproduce fire extinguish in natural stone buildings. The findings provided insights into how the different temperatures impact the stone morphological, physical and mechanical properties. Color measurements (CIE L*a*b*) showed a color difference from 3 to 32 %; SEM-EDS confirmed microstructure modifications after fire exposure with cracks formation and intragranular porosity development. Among the diverse physical and mechanical properties of the stones, uniaxial compressive strength decreased from 1 to 33 %, Leeb D hardness decreased up to 12.2 %, lowering in open porosity was detected in the range 70–289 % and ultrasound speed propagation were significantly affected after thermal cycle at 600 °C with a negative variation reaching 49 %. Results from TGA show a loss of mass due to retained water (∼40 °C) and loss of hydration water at ∼ 120 °C in both limestones. The total mass loss (∼42–∼44 %) is associated with the loss of H2O, CO2. In conclusion, stones with higher toughness and compression strength exhibited reduced damage at high temperatures due to their enhanced resistance to fracturing under stress. As limestone's mechanical strength decreases under high temperatures, it's advisable to increase its thickness to ensure sufficient support for loads and intended conditions of use. The deficiency of analysis on limestone's mechanical decay from fire reveals a significant knowledge gap regarding the complete extent of damage and deterioration in stone heritage structures.

Reminiscences of the Sensations of the South, Mostar and Most in Jasmina Musabegović's Opus

The paper analyzes the novel Most and the essay Iskaz poneblja written on the occasion of the novel Grozdana's giggle by Hamza Hume from Jasmina Musabegović's oeuvre. In these texts, the writer expressed her attachment to the South - Herzegovina, Mostar and Stari Most. With that, she joined the poets of the "city poetry" of Mostar, who promoted it as our most sung city. The heroine/writer self-expresses female subjectivity in the manner of female writing. Reminiscences and associations of the experience of luxuriant nature, the wild Neretva, the bridge's arch and white stone buildings, as well as the architecture and culture of mahal life and the cultural identity of the people and the city emerge.

Iron-rich sandstones in medieval churches in the Cambridge region, UK: distribution, sources and significance

ABSTRACT England’s 13,000 medieval churches are a distinctive landscape feature, not least because they were mostly constructed of local building materials. Especially prominent are churches incorporating iron-rich (ferruginous) stone, in a range of yellow-brown colours. This study investigates churches in an 1,800 km2 area centred on south Cambridgeshire, and interprets the distribution of three iron-rich building stones in space and time. Over 120 churches have been studied in the field, and a further sixty churches provisionally assessed using only photographs. The study confirms existing views that two iron-rich walling stones — the Ely and Gamlingay sandstones — were quarried from the bedrock Woburn Sands Formation (Lower Cretaceous). However, a third walling stone — the Cottenham Sandstone — is re-interpreted as a ferricrete (ironpan) formed by cementation of Quaternary river sediments by iron-rich ground-water. The churches containing ferricrete are shown to lie on the relict floodplains of the ancestral River Cam, rather than following the Woburn Sands outcrop. Cottenham ferricrete was used most commonly during the twelfth to fourteenth centuries with some reuse in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This result conflicts with a hypothesis based on churches in the London Basin that ferricrete walling indicates a twelfth-century or earlier date. There is no evidence in the Romanesque and later churches of the study area that iron-rich and iron-poor building stones were used to create patterned rubble walling as a visual feature. The lack of patterning supports the view that such walls were not meant to be seen and were usually rendered or lime-washed.

Development of an AI Model Utilizing Buildings’ Thermal Mass to Optimize Heating Energy and Indoor Temperature in a Historical Building Located in a Cold Climate

Historical buildings account for a significant portion of the energy use of today’s building stock, and there are usually limited energy saving measures that can be applied due to antiquarian and esthetic restrictions. The purpose of this case study is to evaluate the use of the building structure of a historical stone building as a heating battery, i.e., to periodically store thermal energy in the building’s structures without physically changing them. The stored heat is later utilized at times of, e.g., high heat demand, to reduce peaking as well as overall heat supply. With the help of Artificial Intelligence and Convolutional Neural Network Deep Learning Modelling, heat supply to the building is controlled by weather forecasting and a binary calendarization of occupancy for the optimization of energy use and power demand under sustained comfortable indoor temperatures. The study performed indicates substantial savings in total (by approximately 30%) and in peaking energy (by approximately 20% based on daily peak powers) in the studied building and suggests that the method can be applied to other, similar cases.

Structural Static Evaluation of Historic Stone Building (Case Study: Zahdeh Building in Hebron Old City)

The historical buildings are of great importance, as they represent the architectural heritage and the image of history.Accurate structural analysis of stone buildings is a real challenge, as the mechanical properties of stone and mortarunits are different and unavailable. The aim of the research is assessment historical stone buildings. An experimentalstudy was conducted to determine the mechanical properties of stone building materials and to modelling validation.A numerical modelling was carried out through a non-linear static analysis based on a macro finite element model,using ANSYS. The result obtained of the model of Zahdeh building is that building can bear its loads in its currentcondition, and it also has the ability to bear loads equivalent to two floors. The proposed methods, are suitable forstructural assessment process and can be applied to similar building models to preserve, both architectural heritageand historic buildings.

Characterization of İscehisar Andesite (Afyonkarahisar-Turkey), Used as a Building Stone Source of Historical Heritages from Ancient Times to the Present

Most historical structures that have survived to the present day are constructed from natural stones. One such natural stone is andesite. This study conducted a series of characterization studies on andesites used as building stones in Afyonkarahisar (Turkey). The building stones in question were determined by the petrographic-mineralogical (polarizing microscope, XRD, SEM), chemical, pore diameter distribution, and physico-mechanical properties. Although the İscehisar andesite is not as well-known as the İscehisar marble, it is a volcanic rock widely used in cultural heritage sites such as mosques, fountains, and bridges that have survived from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods to the present day in Afyonkarahisar. Despite the presence of pink, brown, and gray-black colors in the İscehisar andesite, it is evident that the preference in historical buildings is mainly for gray-black variants. Andesite, marble, and limestone, such as İscehisar Bridge from the Hellenistic period, Kırkgöz Bridge from the Byzantine era, Altıgöz Bridge from the Seljuk period, and Kanlı Göl Bridge from the Ottoman period, were used together in various combinations. Mosques are another group of structures in which andesite and other volcanic rocks are heavily used, such as bridges. While tuff is commonly used in examples of Seljuk and Ottoman architecture that have survived to the present day, andesite and other volcanic rocks along with bricks have also been used to construct dozens of mosques. Andesites found in the İscehisar region continue to be widely extracted, cut, and shaped using different surface processing techniques and are used today.

Sprickor i fasaden. Stenbyggnaderna väster om Dalby kyrka och en diskussion om paradigm

Cracks in the façade. The stone buildings west of Dalby church and a discussion about paradigm. In the 1960s, remains of two stone buildings were discovered west of Dalby church. Erik Cinthio interpreted them as a royal palace with an atrium andan arcade, a view that has been widely accepted since. However, in 2010, Jes Wienberg suggested that the buildings had been part of the 12th century Augustinian monastery. Archaeological evidence further supports this hypothesis. This promptsthe question of why the palace hypothesis has not been challenged more. Could our perception of Dalby be biased by a one-sided perspective that favours the elite, thereby limiting our perspectives in the field of church archaeology and the studyof Romanesque towers? It is important to consider both hypothese

Provenance Studies of Natural Stones Used in Historical Buildings of the Peninsula de Barbanza, Galicia, Spain (North-Western Iberia)

Traditionally, the building stones used in the architectural heritage of Galicia (Spain) during the past were mainly extracted from quarries located in the surrounding areas of the historical buildings. Thus, a great variety of monuments were built with the same type of granite but with different degrees of weathering depending on local conditions, geological context (facies), and period of construction. The main purpose of this work is to evaluate the probable origin of the construction materials of six historical buildings on the Barbanza Peninsula, Galicia (Spain), based on the degree of weathering and petrographic-mineralogical characteristics. The evaluation was performed on six different samples of granite according to the geological context in outcrops of places where there are old quarries. We used X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and petrographic microscopy (PM) to attempt to address whether the origin is really local to the Barbanza Peninsula or whether the stone was brought from more distant places, based on our knowledge of the geological context of the study area. Based on the chemical, textural, and mineralogical analyses obtained, the material used for construction has a local origin and comes from small quarries spread over a wide area within the Peninsula itself. Barbanza-type granite is the most abundant within the geological context of the area and also the most used as a construction material. Other types of granites identified are the Confurco Granite and other granitoids of the Noya complex. The Chemical Alteration Index (CIA) shows low to moderate weathering in the granites, fitting petrographic observations. In monuments, samples show higher concentrations of Na and K due to salt crystallization. They show microcracks due to extraction, cutting, and finishing processes and common alteration processes of the main minerals, such as sericitization of plagioclase and chloritization of biotite. This work consists of a multidisciplinary study focused on the geological perspective for the identification and preservation of historic quarries. Knowledge of the original material also presents a unique opportunity for the restoration and/or reconstruction of monuments, which allows for the maintenance of their conceptual and constructive homogeneity.

The (Building) Stones of Venice under Threat: A Study about Their Deterioration between Climate Change and Land Subsidence

The (Building) Stones of Venice under Threat: A Study about Their Deterioration between Climate Change and Land Subsidence

MANCHURIA RAILWAY STATION IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY: PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATION OF MANAGEMENT ON THE RAILWAY

The article concerns the organization of management at the Manchuria railway station in the early 20th century. The station was located on the Chinese territory, two kilometers from the Russian border. For several decades, the Russian population constituted a majority there; churches, schools and hospitals were built, and two customs offices operated. The management of the hamlet, which sprang up near the station, was carried out by the administration of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Simultaneously, at the time of the completion of the construction of the railway connecting branch “Chinese Junction - Manchuria”, part of the functions of the management of the station was taken over by the Trans-Baikal Railway. On the materials of the Russian State Historical Archive the author had shown that the joint management of the station by two railways at once had a number of peculiar features. To resolve disputes, the administration of the railways entered into special agreements. The first of them was signed in 1903 and made provision for all income and fees from the operation of the border section of the road from the Chinese border to the Manchuria station to go into the use of the Transbaikal road. All expenses for the operation of the rolling stock were also to be borne by the Trans-Baikal Road. The operation of the station facilities was strictly regulated: one part of the stone building for passengers, as well as the territories along the railway line, passed under the control of the Trans-Baikal Road, and the other - under the control of the China Road. Expenses for the maintenance and repair of the building for passengers, as well as other public facilities at the Manchuria station, were to be borne by each road in equal parts. The efficiency of the station largely depended on the due organization of the management system. The simultaneous participation in this process of the representatives of two railway departments at once led to a lack of unity of action in matters of organizing transportation. The state-owned Trans-Baikal Railway was dependent on the central departments. The Chinese Eastern Railway, as a private road, had broader competence. The presence of commercial agents at the Manchuria station did not add to unity, as they oft en pursued their own goals to the detriment of state interests.

The symbolic meanings and values in the Momayango Bele procession of the Gorontalo community and its implications on the learning of local wisdom in school

This research is intended to obtain a description of (a) the meaning of verbal and nonverbal symbols of the values contained in the Momayango Bele process, (b) the meaning of nonverbal symbols in the Momayango Bele process, and (c) the implications for learning local wisdom in schools. The study employed a descriptive method with a type of qualitative research that is used to reveal and describe how the payango tradition determines people's houses in Gorontalo and the extent to which the payango tradition is applied as well as the stages of traditional procedures in building a house. The data were obtained from informants/speakers through the interview, the recording and observation of data obtained then analyzed. Based on the research results, the Momayango Bele procession is a process of measuring and making foundation patterns and laying the first stone for house building in the Gorontalo community. The symbols in the Momayango Bele procession contain complex and deep meanings. The impact of the Momayango Bele procession on the local community is to preserve their cultural identity.

Improving non-destructive testing methods for detecting cavity damage and internal defects in stone cultural relics: A focus on ultrasonic testing and acoustic tapping technology

This study employs advanced ultrasonic tomography and Grasshopper software to investigate the internal anomalies within stone materials. We aim to enhance the non-destructive testing (NDT) methods with potential applications extending to modern architecture and stone engineering. Cavity damage and internal defects threaten the structural stability of stone cultural relics. Traditional non-destructive testing methods, while practical, have limitations in assessing these relics comprehensively. This paper proposes an enhanced ultrasonic testing method based on mathematical analysis to accurately detect cavity damage in stone cultural relics. We also investigate imaging techniques for internal defects, combining ultrasonic testing with Grasshopper software for efficient and accurate defect characterization. Additionally, we introduce an acoustic tapping method for detecting internal defects in ancient building stones. Verified through field tests and data analysis, this method is non-invasive, accurate, and fast. The process of detecting stone defects using this technology, along with data analysis methods, experimental results, and application effects, are detailed. This research contributes to the improved preservation and restoration of ancient buildings and extends to other fields, such as modern architecture and stone engineering, highlighting its significance in cultural heritage conservation.

Estimation by capillary water absorption method to building natural stones’ durability against freeze-thaw

In construction, the proper selection of natural building stones and the prediction of their pathology are significant, with freeze-thaw action being a primary cause of deterioration. Testing for freeze-thaw durability, being labour-intensive and time-consuming, often conflicts with construction timelines. The proposed methodology estimates natural stone behaviour against frost damage using quicker laboratory tests (e.g., capillary water absorption). The use of natural stones with an open porosity exceeding 2% is not advisable, as exceeding this threshold leads to losses in compressive strength of more than 10% after 168 freeze-thaw cycles. This alternative evaluation through the capillary water absorption method provides a precise estimation of freeze-thaw durability, proving to be an instrumental tool for architects when selecting natural stones.

ESTABLISHING THE RELIABILITY LEVEL OF MASONRY BEARING STRUCTURES BASED ON ITS COMPONENT STRENGTH ANALYSIS

The article discusses aspects related to assessing the reliability of masonry structures. The authors present methods for determining the compressive strength of masonry in existing structures, taking into account reliability theory. We also consider practical solutions for calculating the design strength of masonry, which may help to assess the safety of massive brick walls and pillars that act as core structural elements of existing buildings. Thus, walls and pillars operating in compression are vital elements of stone buildings and require special attention when analysing and assessing their strength. They carry enormous loads and are critical to the stability of the entire structure. There are cases when it may be hard to obtain safe samples for testing masonry mechanical performance, making the analysis of existing masonry structures difficult. However, building codes and methods provide specific methods for determining the strength of existing structures based on reliability theory. These methods assume uniformity of masonry with regularly spaced brick layers. Although such assumptions may simplify the analysis, they can still provide sufficiently accurate results for making decisions about the safety and reliability of the building. It is essential to consider all possible factors and limitations when using these methods to ensure a reliable assessment of the condition of masonry structures. Stone materials are among the most traditional in various areas of construction production. Buildings with brick load-bearing walls represent the lion’s share of the existing housing development in Ukraine. Ensuring its high-quality operation and the safety of residents during the life cycle of such buildings are priority areas. However, changes occurring in the external environment and the state of regulatory support for construction production require a periodic return to the issues of assessing the load-bearing capacity of both previously erected building structures and those under design. Thus, lately, the territories with previously unusual force impacts on building structures, such as horizontal displacements of the base of the building, have significantly expanded. The reasons for this include seismic activity in certain regions of the country and the results of anthropogenic factors, particularly the areas with unstable soils. We should note that many buildings and structures are subject to external influence due to military operations on a large territory of Ukraine. So, in the event of a hit by warheads or the action of a blast wave, they generate new, non-typical, but dangerous effects on the load-bearing structures of the entire building. Keywords: reliability theory, reliability assessment, structural safety, stone structures, masonry strength.

Usability of Trabzon stone as a natural building stone and aggregate

This study investigated the suitability of Trabzon stone, which is used as a building stone in many areas in and around Trabzon province, as an aggregate. It was found that the uniaxial compressive strength values of the samples taken from the quarry were 87-130 MPa, P-wave velocities were 5048-5642 m/s, density value was 2.58 g/cm3, apparent porosity values were 2.77-4.54%, water absorption values by weight were 1.04-1.78% and water absorption value by mass was 2.0%. Weight loss in the freeze-thaw test was 0.36%, weight loss in the wet-dry test was 0.22%, loss in the magnesium sulfate test was 13%, Los Angeles fragmentation resistance in coarse aggregate was 22%, abrasion resistance value was 18% and methylene blue value was 0.9%. When the results were analyzed, it was found that the mass water absorption rate and the magnesium sulfate test results were above the values required by the standards. Although these rocks are used as marble, it has been determined that the waste material is not suitable for use as ballast, crushed stone, stone fill, pere, and masonry for road and concrete construction. Despite this result, it is necessary to investigate the usability of materials from other marble quarries in the region as aggregates.