Stone Raw Materials Research Articles

Преднамеренная фрагментация пластин как специфический прием в технологии начального верхнего палеолита стоянки Кара-бом (Горный Алтай, Россия)

Purpose. Recent investigations have highlighted an Asian variant of the so-called Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) broadly comparable in age and material culture to techno-complexes further to the west, but also showing distinct derived features. Several principal common technological features characterize the IUP in East Asia. The main targeted products of flaking were medium or large blades, the latter sometimes of very significant size, and the number of bladelets is also large. Primary flaking is characterized by alternate bidirectional reduction of cores in which spalls, alternately detached from opposing platforms along the long axis of the core, determined the shape of targeted blank: pointed blades. Reduced cores were prismatic, sub-prismatic and flat. Burin-core reduction for bladelet and small blade production was the specific knapping technology employed in the IUP of southern Siberia and Central Asia. Here, we describe and provide corroborating evidence for another distinct technological method employed in the Initial Upper Paleolithic – intentional fragmentation (IF). The most effective means of understanding knapping technology are refitting studies of archaeological collections. This article examines several examples of refitted fragmented cores and blades, as well as debitage as the by-product of blank breakage. Results. Our refitting study includes assemblages from all excavation units and partially divided, relatively homogenous raw material types, representing a diachronic assemblage of Middle and Upper Paleolithic materials, even in very disturbed excavation areas. The present study illustrates the best examples of directional reduction associated with core preparation and tool blank production because of the lack of statistical information for some Upper Paleolithic assemblages from this site. We reconstructed the process of intentional fragmentation for burin-cores and a few large and medium blades. Often, blank breakage produced butterfly-like debitage. Pieces of fragmented blades could have been used as tools. Typical attributes of IF consistently appearing on two transverse edges of blanks and present in the assemblage of artifacts prove the anthropogenic character of these flaking traces. Conclusions. It is probable that intentional fragmentation was used in the Initial Upper Paleolithic assemblage at Kara-Bom because of the influences of mobility and transportation of stone raw material by local settlers. They transported a significant proportion of raw material from primary chert outcrops situated 4–5 km from the Kara-Bom site.

The role of the Rocky Mountains in the peopling of North America

This paper argues that the Rocky Mountains played a significantly more important role in the process of the peopling of the New World than archaeologists have traditionally recognized. Although First Americans did not reach the Rockies before they set foot in any other New World region—they could not have, regardless of their point of entry—by Clovis time, evidence suggests that Clovis people knew the Rocky Mountain landscape intimately.Archaeologists should have long anticipated this, given the many resources the Rocky Mountains offer that adjacent, albeit archaeologically better-known regions such as the Plains and some parts of the Far West do not; at least not as ubiquitously. These include plentiful water in the form of streams, lakes, snowpack, and glaciers; high-quality sources of obsidian, chert, quartzite and other knappable stone; and a vertically oriented landscape that maximizes floral and faunal diversity within comparatively condensed space.Two other non-economic characteristics likely contributed significantly to the appeal of the Rocky Mountains to some First Americans: the power and sanctity nearly all humans attribute to mountains, and the seemingly little-recognized fact that northeast Asian Upper Paleolithic people who populated the New World during the terminal Pleistocene occupied mountainous landscapes for some 45,000 years prior to their departure. For many First Americans, mountains—not the flat, windswept tundra of Siberian stereotypes—had always been home.Evidence for the familiarity of Clovis groups with the Rocky Mountain landscapes comes principally from three Clovis caches: Anzick, Fenn, and Mahaffy. All three caches are located in the Rockies, collectively contain artifacts made from ten of the highest-quality stone raw materials available in the Southern, Central and Northern Rockies, and at least one of the caches accompanies the burial of a young child who appears to have been interred intentionally on a prominent and likely sacred landform in a mountain valley.Bringing the paper's argument full circle, that same child's genetic profile shows a direct link to that of another youngster buried thousands of years earlier at the Late Glacial Maximum Mal'ta site in the mountainous Trans-Baikal region of Siberia.

The Chemical Composition and Production Area of Early Western Zhou Proto‐Porcelain Unearthed from Yejiashan Cemetery, Suizhou, China

The bodies and glazes of 27 early Western Zhou proto‐porcelain samples from Yejiashan cemetery, Hubei Province, were analysed using LA‐ICP–AES, SEM, XRD, a thermal expansion instrument and other analytical methods. The results indicated that the bodies of all samples were characterized by high silicon and low aluminium, and were made with porcelain stone raw materials found in the south of China. The glazes are typical of high‐temperature calcium glazes of the CaO (MgO) – K2O (Na2O) – Al2O3 – SiO2 series, with relatively high Mn and P content, which was probably caused by the addition of plant ashes. The physical properties and phase compositions of Yejiashan proto‐porcelain show that firing processes were still in the early stages of development in ancient China. Multivariate statistical analyses indicated that Yejiashan proto‐porcelain might have come from the Deqing area, in Zhejiang Province. These results provide new archaeological evidence for research on issues related to material flow in the Western Zhou dynasty.

Risk Assessment for Stonecutting Enterprises

Working conditions at enterprises and artisanal workshops for the processing of jewelry and ornamental stones were considered. The main stages of the technological process for processing of stone raw materials were shown; dangerous processes in the extraction of stone and its processing were identified. The characteristic of harmful and dangerous production factors affecting stonecutters is given. It was revealed that the most dangerous are the increased level of noise and vibration, as well as chemical reagents. The results of a special assessment of the working conditions of stone-cutting plant workers are studied. Professions with high professional risk were identified; an analysis of occupational risks and occupational injuries was carried out. Risk assessment was produced by several methods; professions with high and medium risk indicators were identified by results of the evaluation. The application of risk assessment methods was given the possibility to justify rational measures reducing risks to the lowest possible level. The received quantitative indicators of risk of workers of the stone-cutting enterprises are the result of this work.

Identification of possible source areas of stone raw materials combining remote sensing and petrography

ABSTRACTUnderstanding the location and distribution of raw materials used in the production of prehistoric artefacts is a significant part of archaeological research that aims to understand the interregional interaction patterns in the past. The aim of this study is to explore the regional locations of the source rock utilized in the production of stone bowls, which were unearthed at the Neolithic (approximately 6500–5500 BC) site of Domuztepe (Kahramanmaraş-Turkey), via a combination of remote-sensing methods, petrographic and chemical analyses. To accomplish this task, the stone bowls were identified mineralogically, geochemically and spectrally, and then mapped with Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) sensors. According to the defined mineralogical composition, which is iron-rich chlorite, the target areas were selected among geologically potential areas that would bear similar source rocks in near vicinity and the target spectral signature was searched within these target areas. In order to overcome the problem of spectral similarity of chlorite group to some other minerals such as carbonate or epidote group minerals, band ratioing (BR) and feature-oriented principal component analysis (FOPCA) were used with an integrated approach and then their results were filtered according to the outcomes of the relative absorption band-depth (RBD) images. The areas with highest potentials were vectorized and then field checked. Mineralogical investigations on the collected field samples reveal that there is a mineralogical match between the source and target material. One group of stone bowls samples have similar geochemical signatures as the field samples having ultramafic origins. However, there is another group of stone bowls samples which are geochemically dissimilar to the first group of field and bowls samples. The data regarding the geochemical signatures of these two groups indicate a genetic relation between the sample sets. Therefore, it is concluded that the source rock of a major portion of the stone bowls unearthed at Domuztepe most probably originated from the near vicinity of the site.

Quantitative and qualitative analysis for the study of Middle Paleolithic retouched artifacts: Unit III of Teixoneres cave (Barcelona, Spain)

Retouched artifacts constitute an important part of Paleolithic lithic assemblages. Evaluating what constraints shaped morphological variability can provide data about mobility, territorial management, and even about different adaptive strategies. This study attempts to understand what factors conditioned the intensity of retouch and the morphological variability of the retouched artifacts from unit III of Teixoneres cave (Barcelona, Spain) and to ascertain whether differences in retouch intensity depend on the raw materials used and the type of site occupation. First, a qualitative and descriptive technological analysis of the retouched artifacts is undertaken. Second, an analysis of the intensity and extent of retouch is carried out in a quantitative way using reduction indexes, and then crossed with a study of technological attributes such as the stone raw material, blank cross-section, or implement type. Lastly, all these variables are crossed and compared using a cluster analysis. The results show that retouched artifacts from unit III of Teixoneres cave can be classified into clear groups that represent different lithic strategies linked to the short-term occupation patterns inferred for unit III.

Mechanical characterization of raw material quality and its implication for Early Upper Palaeolithic Moravia

Abstract Raw material mechanical tests were conducted to answer the question whether differences in raw material procurement among Early Upper Palaeolithic populations in Moravia (Czech Republic) may have been driven by different mechanical properties of those materials. Characterization of mechanical properties of erratic flints and Krumlovský les I type chert show that the relatively finer-grained erratic flints, preferred by local Aurignacian populations, are more easily and probably also predictably knapped at higher speeds, such as reached with soft (antler, wood) percussors, whereas cherts of Krumlovský les I type, exploited by both Szeletian and Aurignacian populations, are more resistant to fracture propagation. This implies the suitability of the former material for fine blade and bladelet production, and of the latter to projectile (e.g. Szeletian leaf points) manufacture, and possibly explains the export of leaf points from Szeletian areas (the Krumlov Forest) to Bohunician and Aurignacian sites within Moravia. Exploitation of erratic flints was easier as regards Aurignacian, and probably entire Upper Palaeolithic knapping technology. Certain tasks, however, were better met with other raw materials, thus reflecting the relativity of chipped stone raw material quality perception in the Palaeolithic.

Variability of the rebound hardness as a proxy for detecting the levels of continuity and isotropy in archaeological quartz

The Equotip Hardness Tester is applied to different types of quartz and other lithic raw materials in order to determine if variations in the rebound hardness measured by this device may serve as a proxy for detecting the levels of continuity and isotropy of toolstones. Continuity, the amount of cracks and other internal defects; and isotropy, the measure of the directional properties of a raw material, are known to have important effects on the level of consistency and predictability of fractures, which in turn is traditionally considered a main factor for defining the flaking quality of a given raw material.The results demonstrate the existence of differences among the raw materials analysed in both the average value and the variability of the rebound hardness. While cryptocrystalline samples show the most homogeneous results, quartz and metamorphic rocks display a comparatively higher variance. In the specific case of quartz, such variability seems to be mainly caused by the presence of internal planes and discontinuities, while anisotropy, although also active, had played a comparatively modest role. The results achieved by the Equotip Hardness Tester suggest that this device could be successfully used for a basic or preliminary estimating of some of the physical and mechanical properties of stone raw materials. Therefore, it is a potential index test for complementing other, more accurate, laboratory methods.

Early Epipaleolithic lithics, time-averaging, and site interpretations: Wadi al-Hasa region, Western Highlands of Jordan

The lithic assemblages from the Wadi al-Hasa region Early Epipaleolithic site occupations reveal long-term patterning as well as distinctions. These assemblages are records of time-averaged deposition of multiple activities in these persistent places in the landscape. In this paper we examine the characteristics of the lithic assemblages from the rockshelters at Tor Sageer, Yutil al-Hasa, and KPS-75, as well as the open-air context in front of the rockshelter at KPS-75 and the open-air site at Tor at-Tareeq. There are several cross-cutting variables that can be considered, including exterior versus interior spaces, temporal slices within the Early Epipaleolithic (e.g., Nebekian and Qalkhan), and the issues of time-averaging. A number of lithic measures often are used in these contexts to examine concepts such as the relative mobility of prehistoric hunter–gatherer–forager groups (e.g., blank-to-core ratios, lithic densities, and stone raw materials) and thus their settlement systems, although these measures can produce contradictory results. We argue instead that lithic assemblages (“occupations”) that are the result of accumulations in site layers must be assessed using the framework of time-averaging because such accumulations are not a record of an individual event but of long-term deposition and discard at locales in the landscape. The Hasa region Early Epipaleolithic site occupations are not unique in being such accumulations, as most researchers combine the lithics from layers to form analytical units. In this regard, consideration of time-averaging should be applied more broadly to Levantine site occupation lithic assemblages and their interpretation(s).

“DISSECTING” QUARTZITE AND BASALT BIPOLAR FLAKE SHAPE: A MORPHOMETRIC COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL REPLICATIONS FROM OLDUVAI GORGE, TANZANIA

In this pilot study we explore the relationship between bipolar flake shape and stone raw material differences. We conducted a morphometric analysis of 40 quartzite and 40 basalt experimentally replicated specimens from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. We carried out two sets of statistical analyses to investigate the shapes of quartzite and basalt bipolar flakes. Our first set of analyses focused on statistical comparisons of five morphometric variables recorded on the two samples of bipolar flakes. For the second set of analyses we used principal components analysis (PCA) to investigate shape differences among the quartzite and basalt bipolar flakes. Our results suggested that there are no significant differences amongst the quartzite and basalt samples. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the close association between quartzite and bipolar reduction during the Lower Paleolithic at Olduvai Gorge is due to a single motivating factor, namely, expediency. However, we emphasize that more experiments altering test parameters and variables are needed, as are direct quantitative comparisons between experimental and archaeological datasets. Future experiments may uncover additional motivating factors for the prominent quartzite-bipolar reduction found at Olduvai Gorge.

Neutron activation analysis of 12,900-year-old stone artifacts confirms 450–510+ km Clovis tool-stone acquisition at Paleo Crossing (33ME274), northeast Ohio, U.S.A.

The archaeologically sudden appearance of Clovis artifacts (13,500–12,500 calibrated years ago) across Pleistocene North America documents one of the broadest and most rapid expansions of any culture known from prehistory. One long-asserted hallmark of the Clovis culture and its rapid expansion is the long-distance acquisition of “exotic” stone used for tool manufacture, given that this behavior would be consistent with geographically widespread social contact and territorial permeability among mobile hunter–gatherer populations. Here we present geochemical evidence acquired from neutron activation analysis (NAA) of stone flaking debris from the Paleo Crossing site, a 12,900-year-old Clovis camp in northeastern Ohio. These data indicate that the majority stone raw material at Paleo Crossing originates from the Wyandotte chert source area in Harrison County, Indiana, a straight-line distance of 450–510 km. Our analyses thus geochemically confirm an extreme stone-source-to-camp-site distance of a Clovis site in eastern North America and thus provide strong inferential material evidence that the fast expansion of the Clovis culture across the continent occurred as a result of a geographically widespread hunter–gatherer social network.

One of the flint tool production strategies based on erratic flint, exemplified by Mesolithic materials from the Dobryń Mały 7 site (central-eastern Poland)

Baltic erratic flint is one of the most important stone raw materials used in the area of the Polish lowlands. Since its first description published in 1920 by Stefan Krukowski, generations of researchers continue to investigate the topic through studies on the characteristics of this raw material as well as processing successive collections of artefacts made of this flint. In this paper special attention is drawn to production strategy based on this type of raw material typical for Mesolithic inventories. It involves the use of natural flint chunks resulting from shattering of frost weathered concretions. With respect to the materials recovered from the 7 in Dobryń Mały site, it is reflected mainly in the production of core tools. However, to a much lesser extent, it is also present in the process of raw material selection for the production of blade and flake blanks.

The beginnings and diversity of Levallois methods in the early Middle Palaeolithic of Central Europe

The origin of Levallois technology and its diversity has been one of the key issues of late Middle Pleistocene archaeology for a long time. This is due to the fact that this technological mode is associated with profound changes in the cognitive ability, the mobility, and the social organization of Palaeolithic hunters and gatherers.The aim of this paper is to raise a few questions related to the origins of the Levallois technology in Central Europe. It is essential to answer the question concerning when Levallois methods appeared in this part of the continent. The next question concerns the diversity of Levallois methods in Central Europe. Are we dealing with a number of schemes used independently, or rather with one or two ideas that were flexible and allowed for different technical changes? The paper also attempts to answer the question regarding the potential sources for the Levallois strategy in Central Europe. Was its sole propagator the Acheulean groups of hunters and gatherers, or might there have been other sources?Current studies indicate that the Levallois technology within the early Middle Palaeolithic sites of Central Europe is as diverse as in Western Europe. The reasons for this can be seen in both the distribution of stone raw materials as well as the impact of different mental patterns, the activity range, and the structural features of the technical system. Current analyses show that the Levallois technology was more widely promoted in the northern zone of Central Europe, where outcrops of high quality raw materials occurred. The studies also suggest that the Levallois technology in Central Europe may have come from different sources. A large part of the materials is related to the Acheulean milieu, which is commonly regarded as the main promoter of the idea of predetermined technology (the Elbe valley). Some Central European sites with early signals of Levallois technology (Silesian Lowlands, Kraków–Częstochowa Upland and the Bohemian Massive or the Carpathians) are located, however, outside the dense Acheulean settlement area. These sites are linked to sources in south or southeast Europe. There is no evidence of local, Central European origins of predetermined technology.Considering the chronology of the appearance of the Levallois technology, two periods can be distinguished. The first period is characterized by the incidental appearance of signs of the small-scale use of predetermined methods in separated places (to MIS9). The second period, which begins either in MIS8 or MIS7 and 6, is characterized by the rapid spread of the technology in question in various forms. Traces from Central Europe are known only from the second period. The later appearance of the Levallois technology in Central Europe probably results from the fact that this area was not visited as often as other territories because of its proximity to the glacial centres.

Lower Paleolithic bipolar reduction and hominin selection of quartz at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania: What's the connection?

Numerous researchers have noted that at Lower Paleolithic sites in East Africa hominins largely exploited quartz toolstone with the bipolar reduction technique. The choice to pursue bipolar knapping on quartz is often attributed to raw material constraints. Thus, at some East African Lower Paleolithic sites the abundance of bipolar knapping may have simply constituted a response to the local absence of lithic resources other than small quartz pebbles. However, at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, where a variety of other stone raw materials were available, the hominin use of bipolar reduction is still predominately tied to quartz. While quartz raw material constraints may explain the use of bipolar reduction on quartz at Olduvai, what they do not explain is the virtual absence of bipolar reduction on non-quartz toolstones. Thus, we ask here two separate, but related questions: (1) why did hominins use bipolar on quartz?; and (2) why did hominins avoid bipolar on non-quartz? To begin to understand this tight technology-toolstone connection, we formulated two simple hypotheses, which we tested via experimental stone tool replication: (1) Quartz bipolar reduction produces flakes that possess “superior” functional characteristics to those produced via non-quartz bipolar reduction; (2) Bipolar reduction is more expedient on quartz than on non-quartz toolstones. Our experimental tests indicated that while quartz and basalt bipolar reduction yield flakes with similar attributes, bipolar reduction on quartz is significantly more expedient than it is on basalt. As such, the close technology–toolstone association between quartz and bipolar can be explained by constraints and advantages of both quartz and basalt alike. Bipolar reduction is already widely acknowledged to be an expedient technology requiring little to no skill. By applying bipolar reduction exclusively to quartz, hominins at Olduvai appear to have only enhanced this reduction strategy's features. Overall, our experimental results are consistent with the widely-held notion that Lower Paleolithic hominins recognized the differences in the physical properties of different types of raw material, and that it is the interplay between raw material and reduction strategy that governed hominin association between bipolar reduction and quartz at Olduvai.

Late Occupation of the High‐Elevation Northern Tibetan Plateau Based on Cosmogenic, Luminescence, and Radiocarbon Ages

10Be‐26Al cosmogenic surface exposure, optically stimulated luminescence, and radiocarbon dates from the site of Xidatan 2 (∼4300 m above sea level [asl] in the Kunlun Pass, northern Tibetan Plateau) suggest the site was intermittently and briefly occupied approximately 9200–6400 yr B.P. This age is substantially younger than expected given the late Upper Paleolithic character of the lithic assemblage, which is dominated by microlithic and unique discoidal prepared core technologies. Comparisons between Xidatan 2 and known surface lithic assemblages in the Kekexili and Chang Tang regions of the central high Plateau show not only that the latter are technologically similar to Xidatan 2, but also that they are demonstrably connected to Xidatan 2 through utilization of the same stone raw materials, which includes a chemically distinctive obsidian. Contrary to most accounts of Tibetan Plateau colonization, our results suggest that the earliest substantial occupations on the interior Tibetan Plateau above 4000 m asl may date to the Pleistocene/Holocene transition.

Sites on the landscape: Paleoenvironmental context of late Pleistocene archaeological sites from the Lake Victoria basin, equatorial East Africa

Open-air archaeological sites record only a small fraction of the behavioral traces of mobile forager populations. Whereas caves and rockshelters were often occupied at least in part for protection from the elements, the reasons why human foragers occupied other places on the landscape (however briefly) are varied and not always readily recoverable. We develop a framework for interpreting human use of the landscape and modeling occupation of open-air sites using the archaeological and paleoenvironmental record of Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites from Rusinga and Mfangano Islands, located near the eastern margin of Lake Victoria. Paleoenvironmental reconstructions using fossil faunas suggest an arid grassland setting unlike the present. Paleoecological modeling of the habitats of extant and extinct bovids, combined with GIS-based reconstructions of lake level change, indicate that human occupation of these sites coincided with substantial declines in the level of Lake Victoria. During this time, both Rusinga and Mfangano would have been connected to the mainland and represented local topographic highs within an extensive grassland. Geological, ecological, and ethnobotanical observations suggest that these topographic high points would likely have been important sources of stone raw material, fresh water, and a variety of plant resources for food, fuel, and other purposes. In contrast, the grassy lowland plains were probably exploited primarily as a source of large game, which included numerous species of large gregarious grazers, several of which may have followed now extinct migration routes.

Middle to Late Pleistocene hominin occupation in the Three Gorges region, South China

The contributions of the Chinese Paleolithic record to broader ranging paleoanthropological debates – have long been difficult to decipher. The primary problem that hinders many contributions that include or focus on the Chinese record is that relatively few regions outside of the main flagship sites/basins (e.g., Zhoukoudian, Nihewan Basin, Bose Basin) have been intensively researched. Fortunately, systematic archaeological survey and excavations in the Three Gorges region, South China over the past two decades has led to the discovery of a number of important hominin fossils and Paleolithic stone artifact assemblages that have contributed to rethinking of ideas about hominin adaptations in Pleistocene China. This paper provides a detailed review of the results of recent paleoanthropological, particularly Paleolithic archaeological, research from this region.The Three Gorges region is located in the transitional zone between the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River (Changjiang River). Vertebrate paleontological studies indicate that the faunas from this region belong primarily to the Ailuropoda–Stegodon faunal complex, a group of taxa representative of a subtropical forest environment. Systematic field surveys identified sixteen Paleolithic sites in caves and along the fluvial terraces of the Yangtze River. Based on geomorphology, biostratigraphy, and geochronology studies, these sites were formed during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. Follow up excavations at these sites led to the discovery of a large number of Paleolithic stone artifacts, Pleistocene mammal fossils, as well as some hominin fossils. Analysis of these materials has provided the opportunity to reconstruct hominin technological and mobility patterning in a restricted spatial point. The Paleolithic technology from the Three Gorges region is essentially an Oldowan-like industry (i.e., Mode 1 core and flake technologies) comprised of casual cores, whole flakes, fragments, and chunks as well as a low percentage of retouched pieces. The utilized stone raw material is primarily high sphericity cobbles and limestone, which were locally available along the ancient river bed and surrounding terraces. Most of the artifacts are fairly large in size. All flaking is by direct hard hammer in a single direction without core preparation. Unifacial choppers are the predominant core category, with fewer bifacial choppers, sporadic discoids, polyhedrons, and bifaces. The flake types demonstrate that the first stage of core reduction is represented by a low percentage of Type III and VI flakes. Some flakes are retouched unifacially by direct hard hammer percussion on the dorsal surface of the blanks. Archaic Homo sapiens and modern H. sapiens identified from some of the cave deposits are likely the hominins responsible for the production of the stone artifacts. Implications for Oldowan-like technological patterning in South China are discussed.

The Magdalenian in central and southern Portugal: Human ecology at the end of the Pleistocene

During the Magdalenian and early Epipaleolithic between ca. 20,000 and 10,000 cal BP, mild and temperate environmental conditions existed in southwestern Iberia due to the position of the Polar Front, and proximity to the Mediterranean, North Africa and the Atlantic warm currents coming from the tropics. Thus, Portugal was marked by a relatively high diversity of terrestrial and marine animal species that were fully exploited by humans during this period.The differential use of caves, rock-shelters and open-air sites and the stone raw material economy suggests various patterns of land use characterized by inland-coastal movements through river valleys cutting through the limestone massif. Data suggest a logistic mobility pattern for Portuguese Magdalenian hunter-gatherer groups based on both diversification and specialization of natural resources.

Changing Perspectives in Australian Archaeology, part IV. Quantifying stone raw material size distributions: investigating cortex proportions in lithic assemblages from western New South Wales

Recent studies using a methodology for the quantification of cortex in lithic assemblages indicate a deficit in cortical surface area in mid to late Holocene contexts in western New South Wales, Australia. This result is interpreted to reflect the extensive transport of artefacts away from their place of production, thus providing a measure of prehistoric mobility within contexts otherwise noted for technological expediency. Here we provide a further investigation of the observed pattern by testing the null hypothesis that all artefacts were discarded where produced. We calculate the size of stone cobbles required to account for the cortical surface area and volume observed archaeologically and compare these values to the distribution of cobble sizes from the raw material sources from which the assemblages were produced. Results indicate that the very large cobble sizes implied by archaeological cortex proportions are not found in a large enough frequency to reasonably represent the average cobble size chosen for reduction. We conclude that the null hypothesis, that artefacts were discarded where they were produced should be rejected in favour of the original interpretation of cortex loss indicating artefact transport. Douglass, Matthew J., anD siMon J. holDaway, 2011. Changing perspectives in Australian archaeology, part IV. Quantifying stone raw material size distributions: investigating cortex proportions in lithic assemblages from western New South Wales. Technical Reports of the Australian Museum, Online 23(4): 45–57. Archaeologists have in recent years been able to document the ways people made and maintained stone tools and how these varied with their degree of mobility and sedentism. Mobile people were often able to use distant raw material sources and carry artefacts from these places to locations where they were needed. In these situations, limitations on the quantity of raw material that might be carried often promoted an emphasis on portability, efficiency and versatility in tool design. Efforts were made to reduce waste and to decrease the likelihood of tool failure as seen by the presence of retouched flake tools, formally prepared cores, blades and bifaces. In contrast, where people were more sedentary, they were sometimes able to move larger quantities of raw material to a single location or position themselves adjacent to stone sources. In these situations an adequate supply of raw material prompted a more casual or expedient approach to technology. Non-formalized artefact morphologies were emphasized leading to the manufacture

The Epipaleolithic (Iberomaurusian) from Grotte des Contrebandiers, Morocco

First identified 100 years ago, the Iberomaurusian is an Epipaleolithic industry that was described from a number of sites across western North Africa. One of these is Grotte des Contrebandiers (Smugglers’ Cave) in Morocco, where Abbe Jean Roche recovered Iberomaurusian materials in excavations in the late 1950s. Although the lithics were published in the early 1960s, subsequent changes in methods and in assessing the interpretive potential of lithic assemblages necessitated a restudy of these collections from Contrebandiers. This study led to a better understanding of the lithic types present and of the use of particular stone raw materials. Iberomaurusians emphasized lithic strategies that maximized use of fine-grained stone to the extent that pieces esquillees should be, among others, a defining criterion for this lithic industry.