Stone Monuments Research Articles

A Short Overview of Recent Developments in the Application of Polymeric Materials for the Conservation of Stone Cultural Heritage Elements.

Stones are ones of the most ancient natural materials exploited by humans, with different uses, from tools to buildings, that have endured over time in better conditions than other objects belonging to cultural heritage. Given the importance of those silent witnesses of our past, as well as our duty to preserve all parts of cultural heritage for future generations, much effort was put into the development of materials for their consolidation, protection, self-cleaning, or restoration. Protection of ancient stone monuments and objects has gained the interest of researchers in the last decades in the field of conservation of cultural heritage. In this respect, the present paper aims to be a critical discussion regarding potential polymeric materials, which can be used in restorative and conservative approaches for stone materials of cultural heritage importance, against physical degradation phenomena. Recent advances in this area are presented, as well as the current bottle-necks and future development perspectives.

Biological Deterioration of an Inca Monument at High Altitude in the Andean Range: A Case Study from Ingapirca’s Temple of the Sun (Ecuador)

Scientific studies concerning the causes and consequences of the biodeterioration of stone monuments located at high altitudes in permanently cold, mountainous regions are scarce. For that reason, this study aimed to detect and identify the bacteria involved in the deterioration of this type of monument. To achieve this goal, we focused on the most important archeological Inca site in the Ecuadorian Andes: Ingapirca’s Temple of the Sun, built approximately 500 years ago at 3.100 m.a.s.l. We first examined the stone surfaces of the temple by scanning electron microscopy and showed the detrimental impact on the mineral structure of the green andesite mineral used to build the temple, caused by crustose lichen thalli and heterotrophic bacteria. Then, we isolated, characterized, and identified several of these bacteria. Most of them multiplied at a wide range of temperatures, from 4 °C to 30 °C, and were thus considered eurypsychrophiles. Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria species dominated the culturable fraction of this community. Several isolates produced metabolites that solubilized mineral phosphates at low temperatures; others solubilized iron-containing mineral fractions in the green andesite rock when tested in vitro. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report related to the biodeterioration of an Inca monument at such an altitude in the Andes range.

Biofilms on stone monuments: biodeterioration or bioprotection?

Debate on whether biofilms on stone monuments are biodeteriorative or bioprotective is long-standing. We propose a criterion of 'relative bioprotective ratio' for assessing the ambivalent role of the biofilms by comparing biodeterioration with weathering. A boundary between biodeterioration and bioprotection exists and fluctuates with dynamic microflora influenced by environmental conditions.

Exhibition Review: Tuan Andrew Nguyen: Unburied Sounds

Exhibition Review: <i>Tuan Andrew Nguyen: Unburied Sounds</i>

Transmission Mysteries: Art and Technophilia

Transmission Mysteries: Art and Technophilia

Որոշ ընդհանրություններ մ.թ.ա. 1-ին հազարամյակի արցախյան տափաստանների և Իրանի որոշ մարդակերպ կոթողների միջև

In Near East, in the Eurasian plains, various stone monuments are found, especially beginning from the 4th-3rd millennia BC. The stone anthropomorphic steale stand out in this row, which began to spread more actively at the end of the 2nd millennium and at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, which is probably related to the movements of different races. With the materials of the 2nd – 1st millennium BC, Armenia is distinguished by a certain diversity: it can be assumed that one of the manifestations of that diversity is the Artsakh stelae. The latter are approximately rectangular, flat longitudinal slabs, which are divided into three parts by two wide horizontal grooves, "separating" the three parts of the body: the head, which occupies a little less than one third of the whole monument, the waist and the "below the waist". The bottom of the waist was usually lightly polished. It was designed to be placed in the ground or on a special foundation. The steale are about 30-60 cm wide, up to 2.5 m high, about 20 cm thick. Pictorially, the stelae found at Meshkin Shahr in the Ardabil valley are quite close to the monuments of Artsakh, which date back to end of 2nd millennium and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. These stelae are chronologically earlier than the Artsakh examples; it is possible that they were the prototype of the latter.

Circumfusicillium cavernae gen. et sp. nov. (Bionectriaceae, Hypocreales) Isolated from a Hypogean Roman Cryptoporticus.

Stone monuments and relics are prone to biodeterioration processes prompted by microbial proliferation and activity. Among the distinct microbes capable of stone colonization, fungi are known to strongly contribute to stone biodeterioration. During the ongoing efforts aiming to study fungi thriving in dolomitic limestone walls of the Coimbra’s hypogean Roman cryptoporticus (Portugal), two unknown Bionectriaceae isolates were retrieved. The aim of this work was to depict the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of these microorganisms. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that the studied strains could not be assigned to any of the currently known Bionectriaceae genera. Moreover, the isolates exhibited distinctive and peculiar characteristics, such as the packing of conidia by surrounding hyphal segments and the formation of rope-like microsclerotia with a textura globose. Taking into account all the data obtained, a novel genus and species, Circumfusicillium cavernae gen. et sp. nov. in Bionectriaceae (Hypocreales), is proposed here.

A Multi-Analytical Characterization of Mortars from Kathmandu (Nepal) Historical Monuments

The historical monuments of the ‘City of Temples’ (Kathmandu) represent an intrinsic component of Nepal’s cultural heritage. The 2015 devastating Gorkha earthquake, besides human casualties, has led to a widespread demolition or partial damage of monuments at UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the ones in Durbar squares. This study, through an integrated material characterization of masonry binders, used in four case monuments from Hanuman Dhoka and Patan Durbar squares, intends to contribute to the knowledge of the technological know-how of the past in order to maintain as much as possible the original traditions and to provide appropriate conservation strategies. The analytical characterization of the ancient mortars was carried out by means of X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Attenuated Total Reflectance–Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), petrographic analysis, X-ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS). The composition of the mortars has been determined and is in accordance with previous research in traditional materials used in the Nepalese architecture. Chromatographic techniques proved to be particularly important in the analysis of mortars with organic binders as they revealed the possible composition of the binding media, providing additional information valuable for the future conservation/restoration of the stone monuments of the ‘City of Temples’.

Damage assessment through petrographic and microscopic studies of stone monuments

Damage assessment through petrographic and microscopic studies of stone monuments

Siddhas' Tomb Shrines and the Power Fields

It can be known from literature that monumental stone has been worshipped in the name of soldiers who died in war since the Sangam period. Tomb shrine worship is worshipping the body of a siddha in the tomb. In Tamil Nadu, the Siddhas studied the body and mind and learned the art of suppressing life with the body and attained immortality. The Siddhas indirectly said that the separation of life from the body is death, and the bio-condensation of life with the body is eternal. To achieve this, if one receives the Kundalini spiritual enlightenment properly from the spiritual educator and performs the proper exercises, the mind becomes compressed and the magnetic energy of the soul expands, and eventually one attains the supreme state of spiritual enlightenment. This state is known as spiritual enlightenment. The Siddhas, who have attained spirituality and have attained mmortality, should bury the bodies of the sages and worship them according to the rules of sacred writings (Agamas). It is called a tomb shrine. The sacred writings tell us how the place of burial, the environment, and the structure of the burial should be. Doing so will benefit the country. If their bodies are burned or neglected, evil will occur. The sacred writings say that if the body of a sage is left unburied and rots and is eaten by foxes, then the land will be destroyed by enmity in the country where it is eaten by foxes. The conclusion of the sacred writings is that the funeral rites and other activities performed for the dead should not be performed for the bodies of sages who have attained spiritual attainment and are considered to be the shrine where the Lord resides and is worshiped. A magnetic energy field is felt in the shrines where spiritual attainers are enshrined. Practitioners of kundalini enlightenment can easily feel that energy and experience ecstasy. Analysts believe that such energy fields cross borders, time zones, and languages and are parallel to one another.

Prosperity Worship in Sangam Literature

Worship forms the basis of the beliefs that guide human life. In this way, they sprinkled paddy and worshipped the deity so that the intended action would result in good deeds. When the souls of the heroic deaths on the battlefield emerged as a creative power as well as a destructive power, they worshipped monumental stone by sacrificing toddy to gain creative power and a lamb to protect themselves from destruction. There was also a belief that one could get what one wanted by worshipping the monumental stone. In order to get rid of the disease, they performed a ritual and worshipped God Murugavel by sacrificing a young goat. The Bharatavas (fishermen) worshipped the SuravuKodu (jaw bone of sword fish) for wealth and strength. They worshipped snails, crabs, shrimp, and swordfish made of gold in the freshet flood so that the harvest would increase and the country would be prosperous.

Legal Regime for the Protection of Heritage Stone Monuments in India: a Study with Special Reference to Taj Mahal and Lotus Temple

Legal Regime for the Protection of Heritage Stone Monuments in India: a Study with Special Reference to Taj Mahal and Lotus Temple

Investigation of the effect of microclimatic environment in historical buildings via infrared thermography

In the reintegration applications of the destroyed blocks in stone monuments, the compatibility of the petrographic and engineering properties of the material selected for restoration with the original building stones provides benefits in the sustainable preservation of the structures. Infrared thermography can be an important tool in evaluating this compatibility. To this end, the restoration stones and original blocks (pyroclastic and travertine) used in Kuruçeşme Han in the city of Konya (Turkey) were examined in situ (infrared thermography, deep moisture meter, and ambient temperature meter) and in the laboratory (petrographic, index-mechanical, and thermal test) environment. To model the atmospheric events of the building stones in laboratory studies, monitoring of the capillary water rise, determination of the cooling process, and monitoring of the drying process of the saturated tests were carried out through infrared thermography. According to the results obtained from the study, it was determined that deteriorations developed due to different thermal behavior both between the pyroclastic and travertine blocks of the monument and between the restoration and the original building stones (pyroclastic and travertine). In addition, it is thought that determining the thermal behavior is very important in the selection of building stones in restoration applications.

The Old Toponymy and New Topography of Zion: Utah, Photography, and Daniel George's Series God to Go West

The Old Toponymy and New Topography of Zion: Utah, Photography, and Daniel George's Series <i>God to Go West</i>

Uzak Doğu'dan Yansımalar: Çin'deki Katolik ve Nesturî Varlığının Karşılaştırılması

Orta çağda Batı Avrupa'dan Fransisken rahipler ve Suriye'den Nesturî rahipler, kendi Hıristiyan mezheplerini ve doktrinini yaymak ve bölgede kiliselerini kurmak için Uzak Doğu'ya gittiler. Benzer hedefleri paylaşsalar da, Fransiskenler ve Nesturîler farklı ikna yöntemleri kullandılar, bu nedenle misyonerlik çalışmalarının sonuçları ve mirası, önemli ölçüde birbirlerinden farklıydı. Moğol bozkırlarındaki mezar taşlarının da kanıtladığı gibi, Nesturîler Uzak Doğu'da dikkate değer ölçüde başarılıydılar; ancak kendi ülkelerinde (Mezopotamya), ironi bir şekilde, giderek marjinalleştirildiler. Buna karşılık, Katolik Fransiskenler ve Uzak Doğu'ya giden diğer Avrupalı seyyahlar, benzer misyonerlik başarısı elde edemediler ve 14. yüzyılın ortalarından sonra bölgede neredeyse hiç izleri kalmadı. Bununla birlikte, kendi ülkelerindeki okuyucuları için yazdıkları seyahatnameler ve mektuplar, hem Orta Çağ'ın sonlarında Avrupa’yı dışa açma hırsları üzerinde hem de on yedinci yüzyıl Çin'indeki Katolik misyonunun dönüşü üzerinde büyük bir etkiye sahipti. Özetle, Nesturîlerin mirası Orta Asya’daki taş anıtlardı ve Fransiskenler ise Batı'da ilham verici metinler bıraktılar. Uzak Doğu'daki Hıristiyan misyonerlik faaliyetinin ilgili uygulamalarının karşılaştırılması, ortaçağ kültürler arası seyahatin hem menşe bölgelerini hem de varış bölgelerini çeşitli şekillerde nasıl etkilediğini daha iyi tanıtabilir. Bu nedenle, Orta Çağ'ın sonlarında Uzak Doğu'daki Hıristiyan varlığı ortadan kalksa da bu misyonerlerin geldiği toplumlar için kalıcı sonuçlar doğurmuştur.

GPR Mapping of buried monumental retaining walls at biblical Kiriath-Yearim near Jerusalem

ABSTRACT In 2019 a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) investigation was conducted at Kiriath-Yearim near Jerusalem, one of the largest Bronze and Iron Ages mounds in the highlands of the southern Levant. The main objective was to test an archaeological hypothesis regarding the existence of an Iron Age summit compound which was supported by monumental stone retaining walls. We used a wheeled GPR with simultaneous central frequencies of 200, 400, and 800 MHz. Despite attenuation in the topsoil, scattering by distributed rock fragments, and asphalt pavement, we were able to penetrate almost a meter and detect anomalies. Some of the GPR anomalies are consistent with the above-mentioned theory, meaning that their locations agree with data retrieved in nearby control trenches and with the plan of the site. The excavation findings, jointly with the GPR interpretation, indeed imply the existence of a rectangular monumental summit compound that dates to the 8th century BCE.

An Early Medieval Śaiva Pilgrimage Landscape: The Persistence of Pampa and Bhairava in the Hemakuta Hill Sacred Space, 800–1325 CE

The early medieval Pampa tirtha (pilgrimage), in the Hampi area, Bellary District, Karnataka, South India, is largely presented in research as a relatively homogenous, albeit sacred space. This paper describes a nuanced understanding of the Pampa tirtha through the lens of spatial organization and pilgrim movement. The natural and built landscape features of the area were digitized through Esri’s ArcMap to historically situate extant stone monuments. Devotee movement through the pilgrimage space was then modelled on time-sensitive maps of architectural and natural features. Pathways of movement across the site were subsequently explored in the immersive panoramic imagery captured in Google Street View. By combining these digital tools, a historicized analysis of the character and qualities of place, born from the organization of the site, are identifiable. The results demonstrate how devotees moved through a network of distinct nodes of shrines, temples, and gateways. Each node possessed a unique relationship to microtopographic features of the hill, and to the earliest deities of the site that originally anchored and oriented the sacred space: Pampa and Bhairava. The pilgrimage space that developed between these two deities was tied together through a path of movement, running south to north. Trends of re-ordering the Pampa tirtha spatial network also reveal patron and artisan mechanisms to privilege and prioritize the 12th-century addition of the god Virupaksha into the sacred space.

Insaniam e ligno (nat . hist . XXXvi 114)

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; In book 36 of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, a book devoted to stone, there’s an extensive description of Curio’s wooden theatre, a surprising fact which warrants an explanation. Equally surprising is the unremarked upon absence in the same book of any mention of the Colosseum amphitheater, a stone monument which was being built when Pliny was writing his encyclopedia, and whose huge construction site in the center of Rome he could hardly have missed. It would seem that Pliny’s disapproval of Curio’s theatre, a device that gave birth to the neologism amphitheatrum, should be read as a veiled criticism aimed at the imperial decision to provide the Urbs with an amphitheatrum novum which was to be the largest structure of this type ever built until this date. The encyclopedist’s feelings towards the Flavian dynasty thus appear to be more ambiguous than is generally thought.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

Alternaria tenuissima, a biodeteriogenic filamentous fungus from ancient Oplontis ruins, rapidly penetrates tuff stone in an in vitro colonization test

To integrate the understanding of mycological biodeterioration on artistic-historical heritage, we cultivated Alternaria tenuissima on Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT) tiles for 20 d in a low-carbon environment. The fungus, collected within the UNESCO site of ancient Oplontis ruins (Naples, Italy), was monitored during its early colonization both for the epilithic and the cryptoendolithic growth by using photomicrography-based image analyses. The data were integrated with the count of conidia and the analysis of biochemical proxies in order to evaluate the biological status of the fungus during growth. Additionally, we provided novel and synthetic insights on A. tenuissima 3D growth dynamics, suggesting that visible fungal spots on stone monuments could represent the “iceberg tip” for advanced stone decay. Our results confirm that in vitro tests, coupled with microscopical observations and computer image analysis, are useful tools to evaluate and quantify fungal biomass on a stone substratum, especially in the early steps of fungal colonization.

Deciphering environmental resistome and mobilome risks on the stone monument: A reservoir of antimicrobial resistance genes

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the environment has attracted increasing attention as an emerging global threat to public health. Stone is an essential ecosystem in nature and also an important material for human society, having architectural and aesthetic values. However, little is known about the AMR in stone ecosystems, particularly in the stone monument, where antimicrobials are often applied against biodeterioration. Here, we provide the first detailed metagenomic study of AMR genes across different types of biodeteriorated stone monuments, which revealed abundant and diverse AMR genes conferring resistance to drugs (antibiotics), biocides, and metals. Totally, 132 AMR subtypes belonging to 27 AMR types were detected including copper-, rifampin-, and aminocoumarins-resistance genes, of which diversity was mainly explained by the spatial turnover (replacement of genes between samples) rather than nestedness (loss of nested genes between samples). Source track analysis confirms that stone resistomes are likely driven by anthropogenic activities across stone heritage areas. We also detected various mobile genetic elements (namely mobilome, e.g., prophages, plasmids, and insertion sequences) that could accelerate replication and horizontal transfer of AMR genes. Host-tracking analysis further identified multiple biodeterioration-related bacterial genera such as Pseudonocardia, Sphingmonas, and Streptomyces as the major hosts of resistome. Taken together, these findings highlight that stone microbiota is one of the natural reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant hazards, and the diverse resistome and mobilome carried by active biodeteriogens may improve their adaptation on stone and even deactivate the antimicrobials applied against biodeterioration. This enhanced knowledge may also provide novel and specific avenues for environmental management and stone heritage protection.