Stone Monuments Research Articles

Cu nanoparticles, a candidate biocide for the conservation of stone monuments against biodeterioration

Nanomaterials, such as TiO2, ZnO, and Cu, have become popular materials for controlling the growth of microorganisms that cause the deterioration of stone monuments, but it is not clear which material is best. In this study, the dominant strains from two stone monuments, the Klippe Statue and Lingyan Temple, were used to compare the antimicrobial activities of the three materials. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the three materials were obtained using the microdilution and macrodilution methods, a linear regression model of the relationship between the addition of the nanomaterial and the color change of the stone was constructed, and the antimicrobial effect of the screened nanomaterial applied to the stone samples was also evaluated. Among the three materials, only the Cu nanoparticles exhibited a broad antimicrobial activity, and its MIC was 0.5%. There was a linear relationship between the addition of Cu nanoparticles and the color change of the stone, the maximum addition without significant effect on the aesthetic appearance was 67 μg/cm2, and there was no difference between the limestone and sandstone. However, the antimicrobial activity of the Cu nanoparticles was only observed in limestone due to the low concentration of the material that could be retained on the sandstone surface. In addition, the adsorption between the Cu nanoparticles and limestone was weak and easily removed by various factors, indicating that the microorganisms could re-colonize the Cu-treated limestone after the limestone was exposed to environmental influences such as rainfall. In this paper, we propose a candidate biocide, Cu nanoparticles, to inhibit the growth of microorganisms on stone monuments, the Klippe Statue and Lingyan Temple, and our results provide a reference for the application of nanomaterials in stone monuments.

“Towards the Connection Between Humans and Nature”: A Critique of the Myths of Stone Castles in Ecocritical Contexts

This paper explores the complex relationship between the myths surrounding stone castles and ecological dimensions in Thailand, focusing on Northeastern Thailand. Stone castles are historical and artistic symbols and representations of the deep connection between humans and their natural environment. These myths, rooted in folklore, convey community histories and cultural identities, highlighting the struggles and triumphs of past civilizations. The storytelling related to stone castles emphasizes sustainable practices and respect for natural resources, fostering a sense of unity and pride within communities. Using an ecocritical lens, this study examines the significance of these stone monuments beyond their artistic value, revealing the sustainable practices and environmental awareness of ancient peoples. By analyzing these myths, we gain insight into the values and beliefs that shaped human interactions with nature throughout history. The myths illustrate a legacy of ecological respect and balanced coexistence with the environment, offering crucial lessons for contemporary society on the importance of environmental conservation and cultural preservation. Ultimately, this critique highlights the need to appreciate and understand the ongoing relationship between humans and nature, as reflected in the myths of stone castles.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in black crusts on stone monuments in Milan: detection, quantification, distributions, and source assessment

In the field of conservation of cultural heritage, one must always consider the environmental conditions in which the works of art are located and the level of atmospheric pollution to which they are exposed, especially in the case of monuments stored outdoors. The present study is focused on the detection and the quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in black crust samples from the Monumental Cemetery of Milan (Italy), and the assessment of their sources through the analysis of the distributions of the different compounds in the samples, together with the use of diagnostic ratios. Six black crust samples taken from funerary monuments were analyzed. Fourteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were identified (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene) by high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector (HPLC–DAD), with a total concentration from 0.72 to 3.81 μg/g (mean of 1.87 μg/g). The known carcinogenic benzo[a]pyrene accounted for 5–10% of the total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the samples analyzed, with concentrations up to 0.20 μg/g. Moreover, the study of the distribution and diagnostic ratios allowed us to confirm that anthropogenic sources such as traffic and the proximity of the train station are the major causes of the degradation of the monuments contained in this Cemetery.

Stone products of the Roman municipium of Neviodunum, Pannonia (modern Drnovo, Slovenia)

AbstractThe paper presents the lithologies used in the stone products of Neviodunum (modern Drnovo in Slovenia), a Roman municipium in south‐western Pannonia. For this purpose, 95 stone monuments were assessed. Petrographic and biostratigraphic analyses were carried out on 56 archaeological and 57 geological samples. Our research shows that, besides some rare exceptions, most stone products refer to three lithostratigraphic units: the Middle Miocene ‘Lithothamnium’ Limestone Member of the Laško Formation, the Upper Cretaceous Krško Formation and the Early Jurassic Krka Limestone Member of the Podbukovje Formation.

Landscape positioning of Neolithic mustatil stone structures along the margins of the Nefud Desert, Saudi Arabia

Monumental rectangular stone structures called mustatils are an important emerging feature of the Holocene archaeological record of northwestern Arabia. To date, few have been excavated, with available radiocarbon dates suggesting an age range of ca. 5400–4200 BC. Here we present a rigorous spatial analysis to identify the patterning and landscape context of 169 mustatils in the southern and western margins of the Nefud Desert. This included: (1) a systematic survey of satellite imagery to identify mustatils; (2) viewshed analysis to examine location and landscape visibility; (3) a point process model to understand how diverse environmental and landscape variables affect mustatil locations; (4) mark correlation function to assess spatial patterning of mustatils based on their size. Results indicate that mustatil locations are determined most by proximity to water (likely locations of enhanced surface water occurrence under the enhanced humidity of the Mid-Holocene), on east facing slopes, close to rocky areas, at elevations between 880 and 950 masl, and on or near topographic ridges (positive topographic position index). Viewshed analysis showed that mustatils are preferentially located in areas that have good views, but not the best that are available, indicating complex landscape positioning that balances a range of topographic and behavioural factors. Using a rank permutation method with size (length) of mustatils as a proxy for labour mobilization we show that mustatils within clusters are not arranged hierarchically based on size, and were likely built by non-stratified groups of people. Our analyses show that people were choosing multiple factors when deciding where to build mustatils, and that the distribution of mustatils may relate to different groups of people resulting in the construction of complex ritual landscapes. As one of the earliest examples of large-scale monumental stone structure construction in global prehistory, understanding mustatils can enlighten us on human-environment interaction during the Neolithic.

Early science and colossal stone engineering in Menga, a Neolithic dolmen (Antequera, Spain).

Megaliths represent the earliest form of monumental stone architecture. The earliest megalithic chambers in Europe appeared in France in the fifth millennium BCE. Menga is the oldest of the great dolmens in Iberia (approximately 3800 to 3600 BCE). Menga's capstone #5 weighing 150 tons is the largest stone ever moved in Iberia as part of the megalithic phenomenon and one of the largest in Europe. The research presented here proposes a completely innovative interpretation of how this colossal monument was built. It comprises a geoarchaeological analysis encompassing three major components: (i) the angles of the planes of each stone, (ii) the stratigraphic polarity of each structural element, and (iii) the depth of the foundations. Our results show that Menga is a unique example of creative genius and early science among Neolithic societies. It was designed as a completely original engineering project, for which we know of no precedents in Iberia.

Politics and Social Connotations of Feasts of Merit Among the Poumai Nagas in Northeast India

This article examines the politics of the megalith building tradition based on an ethnoarchaeological survey conducted in Liyai Khullen, an unexplored village inhabited by the Poumai Naga tribe in the Indian state of Manipur. I documented and mapped 554 stone monuments in and around the village, revealing a concentration in the habitation area and near footpaths leading to terraced fields. Additionally, I explored the stages of “feasts of merit” and the megalith building tradition through ethnography. Examining the tradition of feasting and building megaliths from the theoretical framework of “paleo-political ecology” reveals that sponsors of such costly undertakings received material benefits. These benefits include a larger share of meat and premium-quality rice beer in the feasts of others, the exclusive right to adorn homes with horns, the privilege of wearing status shawls, acquiring prestigious titles, and gaining more influence within the village. Based on the results, I argue that sponsors derived not only higher status but also material benefits within the traditional socio-political structure. The findings presented herein have archaeological implications for discussing megalithic remains among the Nagas and in Northeast India.

Towards a chronological framework for early Irish carved stone: reassessing the evidence of Latinate inscriptions

The Digital Atlas of Early Irish Carved Stone (DAEICS) seeks to record and map key traits of carved stone monuments of late prehistoric and early medieval date, providing fresh perspectives on stone-carving over the course of a millennium. First, however, the question of chronology must be addressed, so here we reassess the potential of Latinate inscriptions as a dating tool. Rather than a comprehensive treatment of palaeography and language, we focus, first, on the small number of monuments that commemorate historically identifiable individuals and, second, on the chronological implications of the use or non-use of formulae, proposing new termini post quem for different variations. We also show that the appearance of Gilla- compound personal names on inscriptions allows the monuments in question to be dated to after 950 CE. The implications of the inscriptions for the date-ranges of some specific cross-forms are explored, above all with respect to the singularly large collection of carved stone monuments at Clonmacnoise, which we argue was the only site in Ireland where stone-carving was sustained over several centuries. Using the dateable inscriptions, we demonstrate that there was a general increase in the average size of recumbent grave-markers between 600 and 1200 CE, a trend indicative of changing strategies of commemoration that has important implications for the chronology of these monuments, especially those that cannot readily be dated on other criteria. This refined chronology will facilitate further research on the key questions raised by these monuments, including patterns of patronage and resource investment, the varied identities of ecclesiastical communities, and networks of carvers and churches.

Glycidyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane-enhanced flexible aminosiloxanes to protect sandstone monuments

To protect weathered ancient stone monuments from surface cracking and surface damage by powders, strong materials containing flexible chains are required. Herein, a facile strategy was proposed to produce hybrid octa-glycidyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (GPOSS)-enhanced flexible siloxanes by the ring-opening reaction of GPOSS using three aminosiloxanes (bis(3-aminopropyl) terminated poly (dimethyl siloxane) (NH2-PDMS), 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTS), and N-(6-aminohexyl) aminopropyl trimethoxysilane (AHAPTMS). This produced three different protective materials (POSS-PDMS, POSS-APTS, and POSS-AHAPTMS) that greatly improved the weather resistance of sandstone monuments, especially their resistance to water, salt, temperature, and humidity. All three protective materials presented an adhesion of up to 2.4 MPa. The resistance of freeze-thaw aging cycles was much higher for the protected sandstone (104–133 cycles) compared with the unprotected sandstone (20 cycles). The three protective materials improved the salt weather resistance of protected sandstone (9–60 cycles) compared with unprotected sandstone (3 cycles), with the long-chain aminosiloxane AHAPTMS providing the best protection. The hydrophobicity of three protective materials on the sandstone surface was improved. Furthermore, the water absorption, water vapor permeability, pore size distribution, mechanical strength, light transmittance, and glass transition temperature (Tg), were all improved. The three GPOSS-enhanced flexible siloxanes are novel and eco-friendly materials for protecting sandstone monuments.

Discovery of novel Nodosilinea species (Cyanobacteria, Nodosilineales) isolated from terrestrial habitat in Ryukyus campus, Okinawa, Japan

Terrestrial cyanobacteria are extremely diverse. In urban areas, they can be found as black stains on the surface of building walls, stone monuments, or man-made structures. Many of the terrestrial cyanobacteria are still understudied. To expand knowledge of terrestrial cyanobacterial diversity, a polyphasic characterization was performed to identify 12 strains isolated from campus of University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan. Multigene phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene and 16S-23S rRNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region showed that the isolated strains formed two independent subclades within Nodosilinea, and were distantly related to all described Nodosilinea species. The 16S-23S rRNA ITS secondary structures showed variations for D1-D1′ and Box B domain, while V3 domain was almost identical among entire species of Nodosilinea, including the studied strains. In addition, a unique morphological character, i.e. forming nodule or spiral shape, was also observed in certain studied strains. According to polyphasic characterization, Nodosilinea coculeatus sp. nov. and Nodosilinea terrestrialis sp. nov., were proposed as two new species of terrestrial cyanobacteria from Okinawa.

New water-based hybrid materials for the protection against water and consolidation of stone monuments

This research aims to develop a multifunctional, water-based product for protecting and consolidating stone materials. A new synthesis strategy using water-diluted silane formulations, composed of TEOS and an alkyl monomeric silane (ETES) or a polymeric siloxane (PDMS), homogenized by ultrasonic irradiation was followed to produce hybrid networks and overcome the limitations of current hydrophobic consolidants.These formulations gave rise to low dry residues and hydrophobic surfaces on various stones, including on low and high porosity stone varieties. Despite some formulations originated cracked films, optimal concentrations of ETES and PDMS showed high protection levels against capillary water absorption with minimal impacts on the color and water vapor permeability of the stones. Besides demonstrating the initial efficacy of these new hybrid materials in modifying the inherent hydrophilic and water-absorbing properties of stones, this work further confirmed their ability to penetrate within the stone pores and their initial efficacy in consolidating porous stones.Thus, new water-based multifunctional hybrid materials capable of consolidating and protecting various types of stones from water-related damage have been developed. These novel materials align with both technical and environmental requirements.

A bluestone boulder at Stonehenge: implications for the glacial transport theory

Abstract. There has been considerable dispute over the mode of transport of the Stonehenge bluestones from their multiple sources in West Wales. For a century most archaeologists have accepted that the stones were transported by humans, but a number of earth scientists have taken the view that they were entrained and transported to Salisbury Plain by glacier ice. There is remarkably little evidence in support of either theory, and for this reason any new description of a possible glacial clast found at or near the stone monument is of potentially great importance. A small bullet-shaped boulder of welded tuff was found in a Stonehenge excavation in 1924, and apart from a brief examination by geologists from the Institute of Geological Sciences (IGS) around 1970, it has been stored out of sight and out of mind. Its geological source is uncertain. Following a detailed examination of its shape and surface characteristics it is now proposed that it has been subjected to glacial transport and that it has had a long and complex history. It is also proposed that the abundant weathered and abraded bluestone boulders and slabs at Stonehenge were also glacially transported, along with many of the cobbles and stone fragments found in the sediments of the local landscape. The elaborate archaeological narrative of bluestone quarrying and human transport to Stonehenge must now be re-examined.

Lyric, lovers, and limitlessness: Shakespeare’s quarrel with time in Sonnet 55

As a genre, lyric remains difficult to define. Paul Celan perhaps best summarizes its meaning by referring to an encounter that lyric effects. In Sonnet 55, Shakespeare tests the limits of lyric against the most powerful of forces—time—showing that it can withstand its assaults better than stone monuments can preserve the king’s image. Shakespeare takes it one step further, however, hinting at the resurrective power of lyric and at the possibility of lyric’s lasting into eternity. Ultimately, Shakespeare succeeds in giving us an image of lyric as fostering human culture, birthing lovers and civilizations and outlasting both.

Carved Stone Models as Symbolic Features in the Agrarian Landscape of the Sondondo Valley, Ayacucho, Peru

Carved stone models, or piedras maqueta in Spanish are stone representations of the agrarian landscape widely found in the Valley of Sondondo, in the south-central Peruvian Andes. This article aims to examine the representations, locations, scale, and certain visual features of these carved stone models in the valley. My analysis reveals that carved stone monuments provide a unique documentary source of information on the ancient Andean agrarian landscape of the Valley of Sondondo. The piedras maqueta are situated in different areas of the valley, and their study enables an understanding of their symbolism and ritual significance in relation to the environment, as well as daily agricultural spaces and tasks. Therefore, I explore the sacred landscape as an inseparable part of everyday agricultural practices.

A 3D Feature-based Approach for Mapping Scaling Effects on Stone Monuments

A 3D Feature-based Approach for Mapping Scaling Effects on Stone Monuments

부여 정림사지 오층석탑 관련 기록을 통해 본 조선 문인들의 인식

This paper examines the perception of the Joseon literati through the records about the five-story stone pagoda at the Jeongnim-sa temple site. We first speculate the process of how the inscriptions were made on the stone pagoda. After pacifying Baekje, General Sojeongbang had to return to Tang and report to the emperor before proceeding to conquer Goguryeo. Therefore, there was only about a month of time available for him to compose his merit inscriptions and carve it onto a stone monument. As there was no time to prepare a stone monument, we presume the inscriptions were made on the stone pagoda as an alternative. In general, the Joseon literati called the five-story stone pagoda at the Jeongnim-sa temple site as the Pyeongjae-pagoda. After examining the names such as ‘Pyeong-jae-top(平濟塔)’, ‘Pyeong-baek-je-top(平百濟塔)’, ‘Pyeong-baek-jae-top-myeong(平百濟塔銘)’, ‘So-jeong-bang-bi(蘇定方碑)’, ‘Shin-la-pyeong-jae-top-bi(新羅平濟塔碑)’, ‘So-jeong-bang-peyong-jae-top (蘇定方平濟㙮)’, ‘Dae-tang-pyeong-jae-top(大唐平百濟塔)’, we show that the names are either abbreviations of “Dae-dang-pyeong-baek-je-guk-bi- myeong(大唐平百濟國碑銘)” or those regarding the person responsible for making the inscriptions. In addition, upon observing “Dae-dang-pyeong- baek-je-guk-bi-myeong(大唐平百濟國碑銘)”, the Joseon literatistood on the side of the people of Baekje and criticized the Tang dynasty for conquering the small nation of Baekje. Furthermore, they perceived the actions of General Sojeongbang who made the merit monument as a cruel tyranny. Finally, we show that the perspective on “Dae-dang-pyeong-baek-je- guk-bi-myeong(大唐平百濟國碑銘)” changed during the late Joseon dynasty due to the influence of the Qing historiography and epigraphy. We analyze the literary characteristics of the inscriptions and evaluate the script style and the level of the caligraphy. Through this, we address the issues related to the author while showing that it was considered one of the finest epigraphic materials in Korea.

Isolation and identification of fungal biodeteriogens from the wall of a cultural heritage church and potential applicability of antifungal proteins in protection

Fungi are able to permanently damage cultural heritage buildings and stone monuments. Protection against these biodeteriogen fungi is challenging because it may require the use of drastic techniques to remove fungal colonies and chemicals, which can cause further damage, especially on mural paintings. Natural biocides are less damaging, greener, and safer and mainly include essential oils and plant-derived substances. Studies on the applicability of purified antifungal proteins in the conservation of cultural heritage buildings are lacking. In this study, we isolated mold mycoflora from the biodeteriorated inner walls of the Calvinist church of Kézdialbis (Kézdialbis, Romania) and investigated the in vitro antifungal efficacy of Neosartorya (Aspergillus) fischeri antifungal proteins, NFAP and NFAP2 against them. Antifungal susceptibility testing revealed that these proteins inhibited the growth of the most commonly isolated indoor biodeteriogen fungi from the site (Aspergillus creber, Aureobasidium pullulans, Cladosporium sp., Penicillium chrysogenum, and Parengyodontium album) and not common ones (Mucor hiemalis, Sarocladium kiliense) with different spectra and efficacies. A phytopathogen and an entomopathogen species (Pseudopithomyces chartarum and Beauveria pseudobassiana, respectively) were also isolated and described first as fungal biodeteriogens of the inner walls. Among them, P. chartarum was susceptible to NFAP2. Next, we tested the applicability of NFAP and NFAP2 in protecting cultural heritage buildings in a wall model experiment against A. creber. Topical application of both antifungal proteins significantly decreased the area infected by fungi. Scanning electron microscopy of the wall models showed that A. creber had reduced growth and conidiation in the presence of NFAP and NFAP2. This inhibitory activity was maintained for a long time. Strong UV irradiation decreased the protective effect of both proteins in the wall model. Taking into account these results, the high stability of NFAP and NFAP2 in harsh environments, and their bulk recombinant producibility, we suggest that both can be used in the protection and posttreatment of painted walls of cultural heritage buildings to clean up mural painting or to inhibit mold recolonization after mechanical, physical, or chemical decontamination.

The first investigation of an Iron Age shell midden in Oman: The Nafūn complex

The Nafūn shell midden complex is a cluster of eight shell mounds in al-Wusṭā Governorate (south-central Oman). Located 40 km north of Duqm, the shell midden is part of a unique cultural landscape encompassing a variety of archaeological features. With a total of 207 recorded archaeological sites, the Nafūn area emerges as a significant site for studying the Early and Late Iron Age communities in south-central Oman. The first investigations of the shell midden were conducted between 2019 and 2022. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples from the site provided a date range of 1012–536 BCE (cal. 2σ), aligning with the Iron Age II (1000–600 BCE) material culture. Together with stratigraphic observations, this indicates that the midden was intermittently occupied for at least 500 years. Additional evidence indicates that there was also activity in the area during the Late Iron Age, evidenced by the presence of a large rock art site, circular stone burial mounds and numerous clusters of trilith stone monuments along the wadi Nafūn route, with a source of drinking water 3 km from the coast. Such findings underscore the importance of Nafūn as a significant site for enduring socio-economic and cultural contacts, strategically located at the mouth of the wadi that connects with the Indian Ocean. The effective utilisation of marine resources by the local communities not only supported their economic and subsistence needs but also fostered strong economic, social and cultural connections with the inland regions. Furthermore, it facilitated their active engagement in long-distance trade and interactions along the coastal areas. The unique combination of sites and the fusion of elements from both northern Oman and Dhofar make Nafūn an intriguing and, so far, undocumented intersection along the long-distance routes connecting the northern and southern cultural circles.

Dominance by cyanobacteria in the newly formed biofilms on stone monuments under a protective shade at the Beishiku Temple in China

Following the installation of a protective shade, rapid propagation of microorganisms showing in black and grey colors occurred at Beishiku Temple in Gansu Province of China. This study employed a combination of high-throughput sequencing technology, morphological examinations, and an assessment of the surrounding environmental condition to analyze newly formed microbial disease spots. The investigation unveiled the responsible microorganisms and the instigating factors of the microbial outbreak that subsequently to the erection of the shade. Through comparison of bioinformatics, the ASV method surpasses the OTU method in characterizing community compositional changes by the dominant microbial groups, the phylum Cyanobacteria emerged as the most dominant ones in the microbial community accountable for the post-shade microbial deterioration. The black spot and grey spot are predominantly composed of Mastigocladopsis and Scytonema, respectively. Validation analysis, based on the active RNA-level community results, supported and validated these conclusions. Comparative scrutiny of the microbial community before shade installation and the background environmental data disclosed that the erection of the shade prompted a decrease in temperatures and an increase in humidity within the protected area. Consequently, this spurred the exponential proliferation of indigenous cyanobacteria in the spots observed. The outcomes of this study carry considerable significance in devising preventive conservation strategies for cultural heritage and in managing the process of biodeterioration.

A monumental stone plaza at 4750 B.P. in the Cajamarca Valley of Peru.

We report one of the earliest known circular plazas in Andean South America and one of the earliest examples of monumental, megalithic ceremonial architecture in the Americas. The example presented here is constructed of large free-standing and vertically placed megalithic stones and is located in the Cajamarca basin of the northern Peruvian Andes. This construction method has never before been reported in the Andes and is distinct from other monumental circular plazas in the region. We present three radiocarbon dates associated with the initial construction of the plaza which average to approximately 2750 calibrated years before the common era (cal BCE), corresponding squarely to the Late Preceramic period, which saw the first monumental construction in the Andes. This is one of the earliest examples of monumental, megalithic architecture in the Americas.