Stone Masonry Bridges Research Articles

Development of a Method for Preservation Appraisal of Historic Transportation Structures and Its Application for the Masonry Bridges of Mimar Sinan

Social history is closely related to the history of transportation. Since the establishment of the first settlements, bridges have been fundamental elements along established land routes, providing mobility, accessibility, reliability, safety, and comfort to their users over the many elements that act as obstacles along these routes. Supporting commerce, trade, and unfortunately wars, these bridges were instrumental in the efficient use of time, enhancing the possibilities of development and progress through interaction between the groups of people using them. Although quite variable in type and dimensions, bridges are unique elements of civil engineering. The effort required to construct them was and remains very demanding in the time spent, techniques used, and resources consumed. Before the advances in construction methods beginning with the use of iron and steam engines following the Industrial Revolution, stone masonry arch construction with the use of timber false-works, masonry blocks, masonry piers, and timber piles, mechanisms of pulleys and levers provided the fundamental materials and techniques used to construct lasting bridges. Along the many examples of masonry arch bridges from far back in history, there is a unique group of stone masonry bridges dating back to the 16th century and constructed by a single polymath, Mimar Sinan. This article will investigate the characteristics of the bridges built by Sinan and their evaluation for preservation and implementation in contemporary urban life through a proposed preservation appraisal method.

Enhancing the fiber-based modeling approach for flexure-shear behavior in seismic evaluation of long-span railway masonry arch bridges

Masonry arch bridges are considered a significant part of the rail and road transportation infrastructures in many countries, and seismic assessment of these structures is of great importance for increasing their resilience. Despite some shortcomings in comparison to more complicated modeling techniques, i.e. continuous and discrete techniques, one-dimensional continuous modeling approaches such as the fiber beam approach are more practical for engineering purposes. Although the fiber models can acceptably predict the axial and flexural behavior of structural members, shear or flexure-shear failure behavior, which could be one of the dominant failure modes in masonry structures, cannot be predicted appropriately in this approach. The purpose of this article is to enhance fiber-based modeling approach to consider these brittle failure modes for the seismic assessments of long-span masonry arch bridges. Using the existing analytical-empirical prediction equations reported on the results of stone masonry walls, an iterative approach is proposed to enhance fiber-based model to include flexure-shear interaction. the proposed method is verified with a series of arch samples with different geometric properties with results from discontinuous models of the sample arches. Following that, different models of a span of a case-study masonry arch bridge is created, verified with health monitoring field observation, and analyzed to compare from different aspects and validate the application of the fiber beam method along with its enhancements. The results of the proposed method for fiber models show promising conformity with the results of more precise numerical models, and it can be used for the seismic evaluation of long-span stone masonry bridges.

Seismic assessment and strengthening of a historical masonry bridge considering soil-structure interaction

A holistic methodology for developing the digital twins and conducting seismic vulnerability assessments of masonry arch bridges is proposed and applied to a historical stone masonry bridge. In this light, digital cameras, drones, and 3D laser scanners were utilized for 3D geometric documentation of the bridge. 3D finite element (FE) models were constructed and calibrated based on the operational modal analysis results derived from the accelerometer sensors. The fragility curves for different limit states were derived by performing a multi-stripe analysis (MSA). The effect of soil-structure interaction (SSI) on the calibration results and seismic response of the bridge was evaluated. The results of the visual inspection, model calibration, and seismic analysis revealed that the central pier and the arches are the most susceptible parts of the bridge. Therefore, three strengthening techniques were proposed, and corresponding numerical models were developed. The first model was developed by enhancing the mechanical properties of the vulnerable parts of the bridge, and the two other models were built by covering the central pier’s outer surface with polyparaphenylene benzobisoxazole (PBO) and carbon fiber-reinforced concrete mortar (FRCM) layers. Results revealed that the strengthening techniques improved the seismic response of the bridge when subjected to transverse seismic excitations. Negligible differences in the displacement response and crack width of the strengthened models were observed from the nonlinear dynamic analysis.

Design of stone masonry bridges in European treatises: Part 1 – The geometrical configuration

Stone and brick masonry bridges represent a significant portion of existing in-service bridges in Europe. A thorough understanding of their design and construction is essential to appropriately assessing, maintaining, rehabilitating and preserving these valuable structures. Unfortunately, relevant literature is fragmented and incomplete, leaving masonry bridges orphaned of doctrine and of treatment in modern codes. Based on a comprehensive review of some European treatises, especially Spanish and French ones, published in the 16th through the 19th centuries, this paper begins to mend the knowledge gap by summarizing the geometrical bridge configuration and the materials employed in their construction. Moreover, the initial steps of the design are illustrated, as an introduction for the second part of this two-part publication, relating to the construction process of masonry bridges.

Design of stone masonry bridges according to European treatises: Part 2 – Construction process

In Europe, stone masonry bridges made up a significant part of heritage infrastructures. Their design and construction were the subject of several European treatises published in the 16th through the 19th centuries. However, the current literature is fragmented and incomplete. This publication consists of two parts: (1) the geometrical configuration and (2) the stone masonry bridges construction process. In the first part, a detailed description of their geometrical features and the materials used are provided. Moreover, a brief introduction of this second part is made by explaining the initial steps of the design. In the present second part, the construction phases are described, starting from the foundations up to the pavement. The investigation recovers valuable lost knowledge and serves as a basis for further research, with the ultimate aim of equipping modern engineers to intervene appropriately towards preserving the functional and architectural value of heritage bridges.

A mindlin shell finite element for stone masonry bridges with backfill

Stone masonry bridges are difficult to analyse with commercial finite element (FE) packages for their specific heterogeneous composition. The stone arch is best modelled as a thick shell where there are predestined directions of tension failure, normal to the bed joints. A dedicated, very simple, Mindlin shell finite element is developed with five translational degrees of freedom per node. It features compatibility with linear isoparametric or constant strain elements for the backfill. Most bridges can be analysed with a sufficient accuracy assuming plain strain conditions. The element then simplifies to a Timoshenko beam element with three translational degrees of freedom per node. An application of the latter one to the bridge at Poniklá is presented.

Arch Stone Bridges: Procedures for Evaluation of Structural Integrity

ABSTRACT In the Balkan Peninsula, the single-arched stone masonry bridge has served for centuries as an essential part of transportation infrastructure. Being exposed to the natural elements and to aging, several of these structures are in a state of disrepair that is accelerated by neglect. Nevertheless, these are important samples of the built heritage encapsulating historical materials, methods of construction and ancient craftsmanship. Still standing for over half a millennium, such bridges testify the wisdom by which the masons chose the location and form of the arch to span over torrents minimizing the wear from water scouring and floods. Preservation of the bridges that are still standing is a priority. With increasing number of bridge collapses reported in the past years under extreme flood, an immediate need emerges for methods of evaluation of the structural vulnerability and measures to enhance their resilience. Using as a case study a bridge built in fifteenth century in Greece, this paper unfolds the essential attributes of a comprehensive assessment framework that combines non-destructive evaluation techniques to reveal information about technologies and details, with a numerical investigation of the resilience of the structure to floods and seismic hazards in order to identify risks of bridge integrity.

Lecciones aprendidas en la reparación de puentes de fábrica: Astiñene y Deba

Pese a que, en general, los puentes de piedra son muy resistentes y duraderos, también es cierto que tienden a fallar, de forma ruinosa en no pocas ocasiones, cuando su ubicación se encuentra en terrenos donde el sustrato competente se localiza a profundidades importantes, bien por defectos de concepción, capacidad técnica en la época de construcción y/o incrementos de solicitaciones. El desplazamiento o giro impuesto por el fallo de una cimentación en una estructura tan rígida provoca, al intentar acomodarse a la nueva geometría, la formación de rótulas mediante la aparición de fisuras, grietas y pérdida de piezas en cualquiera de sus elementos (pilas, bóvedas y tímpanos). La ausencia de respuestas resistentes de tracción y la conversión de la bóveda en un mecanismo por exceso de rótulas pueden llevar a la estructura a la ruina, pues el derrumbe de un vano ocasiona generalmente un fallo en cadena del resto cuando las pilas pasan a un estado no compensado de empujes horizontales.
 Presentaremos, desde la visión del contratista especializado, dos experiencias recientes de reparación y refuerzo realizadas con carácter de urgencia en puentes de piedra en Guipúzcoa, tras asentar súbitamente.
 En el puente de Astiñene, San Sebastián, realizamos un atirantamiento con barras de alto límite elástico para asumir los esfuerzos horizontales introducidos en las bóvedas por el peso de la maquinaria de micropilotaje con la que se efectuaba el recalce de las cimentaciones de las pilas, ejecutado desde el tablero con un sistema novedoso (Sonic Drilling).
 El puente viejo de Deba supuso un importante reto técnico al tener que lanzarse, en un espacio muy reducido, una estructura auxiliar de la que apear dos vanos afectados por el hundimiento de una pila, mediante elementos tensores que sostuvieran inferiormente los arcos, requiriéndose para ello el recalce previo de las cimentaciones.

Seismic assessment and retrofitting measures of a historic stone masonry bridge

Seismic assessment and retrofitting measures of a historic stone masonry bridge

2D-DEM modelling of the formwork removal of a rubble stone masonry bridge

This study aims to determine the mechanical behaviour of a stone arch bridge during the phase of the formwork removal. This operation is the most delicate during construction, because it puts in charge the arch which must work in compression for stability. On-site measurements of the displacement of the arch voussoirs during the process of the formwork removal were carried out. Then, some mechanical tests were performed with the stones used in the construction to determine the mechanical properties required for modelling the structure by a discrete element method. This numerical approach has the ability to find the specific pattern of the displacement field observed on-site that could not have been found with a finite element method. The key feature is the rotation of the voussoirs which changes the location of the zones of contact from one to another. Therefore, the contacts from one to another are restricted to a small zone for the voussoirs close to the keystone.

Load Rating of Masonry Arch Bridges: Refinements

In a paper previously published by the first writer, a procedure for load-rating masonry arch bridges was introduced. The procedure uses the Load Factor Method of the 1994 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Manual for the Condition Evaluation of Bridges, applied to a frame analysis model of a masonry arch spanning from abutment to abutment. The procedure is based on the assumption of the arch barrel having no tensile strength. The objective of this technical note is to complement the initial procedure by enabling the assessing engineer to exercise discretion in deciding whether or not a small value of tensile strength should be allowable in determining a suitable rating for masonry arch bridges. In addition the initially proposed strength values, which are considered overly conservative, are increased. The introduction of these refinements will allow a more accurate assessment of the nation’s stock of stone masonry bridges.

Experimentally-based assessment of masonry arch bridges

This paper presents a summary of a continuing research programme intended for the development of generally applicable assessment procedures for masonry arch bridges, for which the assumptions and assessment results can be justified by experimental observations. The research is being undertaken in three phases. Phase I consists of experimental testing of bridges under service loads for the purpose of observation of bridge behaviour. A further purpose of the experimental programme is to provide data for the validation of three-dimensional non-linear finite-element models. In Phase II, three-dimensional non-linear finite-element models capable of capturing the principal features of the bridge response, based on a prescribed procedure and using standardised values of strength and stiffness, were developed. In Phase III the application of a two-dimensional model for the assessment of stone masonry bridges was considered. The assessment method used is based on a prescribed procedure using standardised values of strength and stiffness, which can be implemented in any general structural analysis programme. This phase also included a comparison of the proposed assessment method with other methods in common use.

Experimentally-based assessment of masonry arch bridges

This paper presents a summary of a continuing research programme intended for the development of generally applicable assessment procedures for masonry arch bridges, for which the assumptions and assessment results can be justified by experimental observations. The research is being undertaken in three phases. Phase I consists of experimental testing of bridges under service loads for the purpose of observation of bridge behaviour. A further purpose of the experimental programme is to provide data for the validation of three-dimensional non-linear finite-element models. In Phase II, three-dimensional non-linear finite-element models capable of capturing the principal features of the bridge response, based on a prescribed procedure and using standardised values of strength and stiffness, were developed. In Phase III the application of a two-dimensional model for the assessment of stone masonry bridges was considered. The assessment method used is based on a prescribed procedure using standardised values of strength and stiffness, which can be implemented in any general structural analysis programme. This phase also included a comparison of the proposed assessment method with other methods in common use.

Relocation and Restoration Works for the Korai Bridge and the Tamae Bridge of Arch-type Stone-Masonry Bridges in Kagoshima

Relocation and Restoration Works for the Korai Bridge and the Tamae Bridge of Arch-type Stone-Masonry Bridges in Kagoshima

Sonic, electromagnetic and impulse radar investigation of stone masonry bridges

Masonry arch bridge assessment is overviewed strategically. It is proposed that where a bridge fails the load-carrying capacity assessment by a small margin, and it looks to be in good condition, that further investigation be undertaken using NDT techniques. The NDT techniques of radar, sonic and conductivity methods are reviewed and the results from sonic and conductivity NDT surveys are discussed. It is concluded that these techniques are effective and that tomographic plots aid the interpretation of data. It is shown on a full scale twin-arch masonry bridge that both sonics and conductivity could identify the masonry wall thickness. However with respect to sonics, great attention must be paid to recording the data. Meticulous work is also necessary during the preparation and analysis of the sonic data, but good results can be achieved when the correct grid density is set in relation to the goal of the test. The conductivity technique has demonstrated the ability to be a rapid, low cost, non-contacting technique from which tomographic cross-sections, inhomogeneity identification, moisture movement detection over time and layering within the masonry can be achieved. It should be noted that the conductivity method has given detailed information up to a certain depth into the structure, but no data could be collected at deeper locations. Nonetheless its extreme low cost, particularly in terms of time in the post data-collection phase, makes it convenient for repetitive surveys.

The Construction and the Background of Five Stone-Masonry Bridges over the Kotsuki River

The five stone-masonry bridges over the Kotsuki River, which flows along the center of Kagoshima City, have provided a historical outlook to this City. Among them, the Nishida Bridge has ornamental balustrade with beautifully designed balusters and this bridge is very famous as the main gateway bridge of the old Satsuma province. This paper investigates why these stone-masonry bridges were chosen for construction in kagoshima, which lies at the southern edge of Kyusyu, the circumstances of construction of these bridges and so on.

The history of prevention of flooding of the Kotsuki river, the changes in the characterities of the catchment area and the five stone-masonry bridges

The history of prevention of flooding of the Kotsuki river, the changes in the characterities of the catchment area and the five stone-masonry bridges

Historical studies on the five stone-masonry bridges over the Kotsuki river

The five stone-masonry arch bridges over the Kotsuki river in Kagoshima city were constructed around 150 years ago and were in use till recently. But two of them were washed out due to the record rainfall which fell in August 1993. Therefore it was decided to carry out river conservation works and move the three remaining bridges to a different place and preserve them there. This paper investigates the changing conditions of the five stone-masonry arch bridges in relation to the variations in social environment from a historical perspective. An attempt is made to understand the cultural significance of present civil engineering structures. The procedure for general agreem6nt regarding the preservation and conservation of historical structures is also discussed.

Flood control system of Five Major Stone Masonry Bridges over Kotsuki Rive

[in Japanese]

A study on the Damage and Repair of Historical Arch-type Stone-Masonry Bridges in China

This paper presents the investigations on the historical arch-type stone-masonry bridges, carried out by the authors between 1994 and 1996 in Japan and China.These bridges were built several hundred years ago and are still in use. Authors studied the actual examples of the damage and the repair of these bridges by classifying them based on the reasons of damage. And the structural characteristics of arch-type stone-masonry bridges were examined. Finally a technical discussion has been presented concerning the repair and conservation of arch-type stone-masonry bridges in the future.