Stone Age Occupation Research Articles

The Taphonomy and Subsistence Strategies from the Final Middle Stone Age Occupation at Sibudu Cave, South Africa

This study examined the faunal assemblage from Sibudu Cave, a final Middle Stone Age site in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A two-part hierarchical method was employed, with the assemblage's taphonom...

Pastoral Neolithic sites on the southern Mbulu Plateau, Tanzania

As part of a larger project examining the introduction of herding into northern Tanzania, surveys and excavations were conducted at the southern edge of the Mbulu Plateau, documenting the presence of Narosura ceramics dating to the early third millennium BP, as well as a Later Stone Age occupation dated via ostrich eggshell to the tenth millennium BP. This marks the southernmost extent of the Pastoral Neolithic in eastern Africa. The paucity of sites attributable to early herding in this area may be due to a lack of survey in landscapes likely to have been preferred by livestock owners and to extensive contemporary cultivation in those same areas. Links can be drawn between the study area and previously documented sites with Narosura materials near Lake Eyasi, and between the study area and obsidian sources in the Lake Naivasha area of the Rift Valley, making the plateau and its surroundings a potentially promising area for further research.

Chronological and behavioral contexts of the earliest Middle Stone Age in the Gademotta Formation, Main Ethiopian Rift

There is a general consensus that our species emerged first in Africa. Currently, the best-known skeletal evidence for the earliest anatomically modern Homo sapiens (AMHs) derives from sites in the rift valley in Ethiopia. However, archaeological evidence from cave sites in southern and northern Africa largely dominates discussions on behaviors that characterize the dawn of modern humans. Later Middle Pleistocene open-air sites in East Africa present unparalleled geochronological control and thus a better chance to study hominin behavior. Here, we present results of a multidisciplinary investigation of the archaeology and geochronology of one of the oldest-known Middle Stone Age (MSA) occupations from the Gademotta Formation (Fm.) in the Main Ethiopian Rift. Renewed excavation, lithic analysis, fracture mechanics, and tephrochronological investigations at Gademotta provide a better understanding of the chronological and behavioral contexts during the critical period immediately preceding the origin of our species.

The use of OSL dating in unstructured sands: the archaeology and chronology of the Hutton Sands at Canteen Kopje (Northern Cape Province, South Africa)

Archaeological research at the site of Canteen Kopje, Northern Cape Province, South Africa, has focused on the rich Earlier Stone Age assemblages recovered from the Younger Vaal Gravels. This paper presents the results of excavation and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of the overlying Hutton Sands. We discuss the evidence for colonial period interaction between diamond miners and indigenous groups at the site, as well as the presence of an earlier phase of terminal Middle Stone Age/early Later Stone Age occupation. The OSL analyses demonstrate the potential distortion of OSL ages due to substantial bioturbation and its effect on the dating of archaeological sites situated in unconsolidated sands.

A reassessment of the Middle and Later Stone Age lithic assemblages from Aladi Springs, Southern Afar Rift, Ethiopia

The site of Aladi Springs was discovered and excavated in the 1970s. However, the assemblages from this site did not subsequently receive full investigation. Here, we present results of the first exhaustive analysis of the lithic collections from both the Middle and the Later Stone Age (MSA/LSA) occupation horizons at this site. Detailed analysis of metric and non-metric attributes reveals a marked variability in production techniques and overall size of major tool classes, with dimensional diminution evident across these occupations. However, tool utilisation patterns exhibit an overall similarity where marginally retouched tools and inverse retouch techniques appear to be the characteristic features of both industries. Whereas the presence in the MSA occupation of tool forms with LSA affinities suggests that the site may actually represent a transitional context, additional excavations and/or detailed microstratigraphic studies are needed in order to establish unequivocally the actual cultural trajectories at Aladi Springs.

Luminescence characteristics and dose distributions for quartz and feldspar grains from Mumba rockshelter, Tanzania

Mumba rockshelter is a key archaeological site for the Middle and Later Stone Age occupation of East Africa, but its chronology has remained unresolved. We report the results of a dating study, focussing on the characterisation of the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) properties of quartz- and potassium-rich feldspar grains. Quartz has previously proven troublesome for dating in East Africa. We identified five general types of quartz grain behaviour, based on the shapes of their OSL decay and dose–response curves. Dose recovery experiments and measurement of the natural samples revealed particular problems with quartz grains that had hyperbolic dose–response curves, low characteristic saturation doses and anomalously large changes in sensitivity between regenerative-dose cycles. The use of pulsed irradiation during measurement and standard and additional quality-assurance criteria during data analysis reduced the number of grains that suffered from these problems. We applied these procedures to individual grains of quartz from eight samples and, using appropriate statistical models, identified post-depositional mixing in three samples. The remaining samples had scattered equivalent-dose distributions typical of quartz grains that had received variable beta dose rates during burial. Stratigraphically consistent OSL ages were obtained for all but the deepest sample. Feldspar ages were estimated for the latter sample and three other samples, using the elevated temperature IRSL signal that exhibited low rates of anomalous fading. Fading-corrected feldspar ages for the latter three samples are consistent with their single-grain quartz ages, but single-grain dating is needed to address problems of post-depositional mixing.

Burned bone in the Howieson’s Poort and post-Howieson’s Poort Middle Stone Age deposits at Sibudu (South Africa): behavioral and taphonomic implications

Despite a growing awareness of the wide range of information that can be provided by detailed analyses of burned bone from archaeological contexts, such analyses are still relatively uncommon. This paper focuses on the behavioral and taphonomic implications of burned bone from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) site of Sibudu Cave (South Africa), reporting on the analysis of a large sample (>377,000 fragments) of bone recovered from the Howieson’s Poort (HP) and post-HP MSA deposits at the site. Faunal remains were initially sorted into burning categories based on changes in color; microscopic analyses focused on the optical properties of the bone matrix (degree of preservation of the bone structure, reflectance and fluorescence) indicated that the color is a valid indicator of thermally altered bone in the Sibudu assemblage. The association of burned bone with hearths, the intensity of burning damage, and the sheer quantity of thermally altered bone suggests that the bone was not burned primarily as a result of natural fires. We propose that the high incidence of burned bone primarily reflects two types of site maintenance activities: first, the discarding of bone into fire as a means of disposing of food waste (as also argued by Cain [2005, Using burned animal bone to look at Middle Stone Age occupation and behavior. J. Archaeol. Sci. 32, 873–884], for a smaller sample of material from the post-HP and late MSA deposits at the site), and second, the incidental burning of bone on/near the surface during the periodic burning of plant-based bedding. In considering the taphonomic implications of the burned bone, we demonstrate that calcined bone is in fact more heavily fragmented than unburnt or moderately burned bone. Furthermore, cortical preservation was negatively correlated with the intensity of burning damage, which has implications for the study of surface modifications. These results indicate the importance of conducting thorough taphonomic analyses prior to making comparisons between units that show differing degrees or intensities of burning damage.

Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? A review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa

The concept of remote capture involved in the creation and use of snares and traps is one of several indicators that can be used for the recognition of enhanced working memory and complex cognition. It can be argued that this humble technology is a more reliable indicator of complex cognition than encounter hunting, for example with spears. It is difficult to recognize snares and traps archaeologically because they are generally made from materials that do not preserve well. To infer their presence in the past, it is therefore necessary to rely on circumstantial evidence such as mortality profiles, taxonomic diversity and high frequencies of creatures that are susceptible to capture in snares or traps. Clearly there are some problems with using snares to infer complex cognition because people do not necessarily choose meat-getting strategies with the lowest costs. Although snares make economic sense because they reduce search costs, their use by modern hunters is not associated with the type of status accorded to other means of hunting. Social demands, more than economic or environmental ones, may consequently have determined the amount of snaring and trapping that occurred in the past. Because of social attitudes, an absence of snaring need not mean that people were incapable of using this technique. At Sibudu, a South African Middle Stone Age site, snares or other non-selective capture techniques may have been used during the Howiesons Poort and perhaps also the Still Bay Industry. The circumstantial evidence consists of 1. high frequency representations of animals that prefer forested environments, including the tiny blue duiker (adult and juvenile) and the dangerous bushpig, 2. high frequencies of small mammals, 3. high taxonomic diversity and, 4. the presence of small carnivores. Importantly, the Howiesons Poort faunal assemblage is different from that in more recent Middle Stone Age occupations of the site.

A dating intercomparison study on Late Stone Age coastal midden deposits, South Africa

AbstractThe southern and western coastlines of South Africa have an extensive archaeological record with many sites associated with widespread eolian deposits. While much of this rich archaeological record is based on cave sites, evidence of Late Stone Age occupation is additionally preserved in the form of open‐site shell middens. We present here a comparative study of the application of amino acid racemization (AAR), optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), and radiocarbon analyses to three Late Stone Age (LSA) midden sites found within dunes on the southern coastline of South Africa. Preliminary geochronological analyses suggest that middens offer opportunity to fill in gaps in what is still a fragmentary archaeological record. Results show OSL and radiocarbon ages in good agreement, illustrating the potential to date not only the middens but also the surrounding dunes that constituted the dwelling sites. AAR results show increasing ratios with age and also that the application of paired shell and “whole rock” AAR can provide insights into the degree of biogenic sediment recycling at buried midden sites. However, the work also highlights that caution is required when OSL sampling sediment associated with middens which may have undergone human disturbance and that further work is required to improve the regional marine reservoir correction for radiocarbon dating in this part of South Africa. The study also illustrates that AAR will only provide useful data provided that middens have been sufficiently deeply buried to overcome fluctuations in environmental variables that affect the racemization rate and that inter‐genus comparisons should be avoided. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

New age constraints on the Middle Stone Age occupations of Kharga Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt

Spring-deposited carbonate rocks, or tufas, exposed along the flanks of the Libyan Plateau near Kharga Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt, can provide a directly datable stratigraphic context for Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic (MSA/MP) archaeological material, if such material can be found in situ within tufa strata. Two such localities (Mata'na Site G and Bulaq Wadi 3 Locus 1) described by Caton-Thompson were revisited and sampled for uranium-series analysis. At Mata'na Site G (KH/MT-02), Middle Stone Age (“Upper Levalloisian”) material is underlain by tufa with a uranium-series age of 127.9 ± 1.3 ka, and overlain by tufa with an age of 103 ± 14 ka. At Bulaq Wadi 3 Locus 1, a uranium-series age of 114.4 ± 4.2 ka on tufa capping a small collection of Middle Stone Age artifacts also provides a minimum age constraint on that material. Tufa underlying an MSA workshop (KH/MD-10) indicates that this assemblage, characterized by use of several Levallois reduction methods, was deposited after ∼124 ka. Furthermore, uranium-series ages averaging ∼133 ka on a Wadi Midauwara tufa (WME-10) without associated archaeological material suggest that one period of spring flow in the region began during the Marine Isotope Stage 6/5e transition, prior to the warmest portion of the last interglacial period. The dated archaeological material suggests that the distinction that has been identified between Nubian and non-Nubian complexes in the Nile Valley may hold for the Western Desert, although local complexity has yet to be fully described.

Extending the chronology of deposits at Blombos Cave, South Africa, back to 140 ka using optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurements are reported for both single aliquots (of two different sizes) and single grains of quartz from deposits within Blombos Cave. Ages have been obtained for six sediments from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) occupation levels and for two sterile sands, one underlying the archaeological sediment and one overlying the Later Stone Age occupation levels. The ages for the archaeological sediments were obtained from single-grain measurements that enabled unrepresentative grains to be rejected. The MSA occupation levels have ages that, within error limits, are in stratigraphic order and fall between the OSL age for the oldest dune sand (143.2 ± 5.5 ka) and a previously published OSL age for the sterile sand (∼70 ka) that separates the Middle and Later Stone Age deposits. The earliest MSA archaeological phase, M3, from where fragments of ochre were found as well as human teeth, is dated to 98.9 ± 4.5 ka, coinciding with the sea-level high of oxygen isotope substage 5c. The cave then appears to be unoccupied until oxygen isotope substage 5a on the basis of four OSL ages for archaeological phase M2, ranging from 84.6 ± 5.8 to 76.8 ± 3.1 ka; these levels contained large hearths and bone tools. An age of 72.7 ± 3.1 ka was obtained for the final MSA archaeological phase, M1, from which deliberately engraved ochre and shell beads were recovered along with bifacial stone points. We conclude that the periods of occupation were determined by changes in sea level, with abundant sources of seafood available in times of high sea level and with the cave being closed by the accumulation of large dunes during periods of low sea level, such as during oxygen isotope stages 4 and 6.

Using burned animal bone to look at Middle Stone Age occupation and behavior

Studies on burned bone have rarely been applied in understanding the human behavior behind the burning of animal remains. The Middle Stone Age faunal assemblage from Sibudu Cave (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) contains a very high proportion of burned bones. Based on previous experimental studies, a system of recording important aspects of burned bone was developed and applied to a sample of contexts from Sibudu Cave. The results produced a picture of the nature of burned bone from hearths, and described the bone from other features and general layers. It is believed that the bone at Sibudu was systematically being discarded into fires and burned, and additional material was burned by buried bones coming into contact with hearths. Additional actualistic work is needed to complete our understanding of archaeological burned bones.

Earlier stone age archaeology of the Vhembe-Dongola National Park (South Africa) and vicinity

South of the modern Limpopo River near its confluence with the Shashe, gravels associated with an ancient aggrading terrace of the river attracted Earlier Stone Age (ESA) occupations preserved in the Vhembe-Dongola National Park of South Africa. Artefacts from late ESA occupations were deflated onto substrates of cemented Miocene terrace sediments and sandstone bedrock and today lie buried by fine, non-alluvial sands of Holocene age. Artefacts are eroding from these sands, which cap a 3 km long escarpment forming the northern edge of the remnant terrace. Close to the escarpment, large-scale excavation has exposed an artefact accumulation with parallels to the Sangoan industry (or Charaman in one proposed industrial sequence). Test-pitting of the sand cover across 10 km 2 has been conducted along the escarpment and southwards in sediments that overlie both sandstone and calcrete. Buried artefacts are preserved at many locations but the more informative sites occur at deep sediment traps formed by hilly sandstone outcrops (koppies). At one such location, Later and Middle Stone Age artefacts also occur. Analysis of the cultural phases present on this landscape and OSL dating of the deeper deposits is underway to document the Pleistocene and Holocene periods when this semi-arid, drought-prone environment was habitable for Stone Age populations.

The Plio-Pleistocene vegetation and climate of Sterkfontein and Swartkrans, South Africa, based on micromammals

Micromammalian remains from Oldowan and Acheulean horizons in Sterkfontein Member 5E (M5E-O and M5E-A) and Swartkrans Members 1–3 (SKX1–3) provide information for the period between about 2 and 1Ma. Another small sample from Sterkfontein Member 4 (M4) refers to a short period around 2·8–2·6Ma and material from Sterkfontein post Member 6 infill (post-M6) relates to the Middle Stone Age occupation around 100ka.Virtual absence of evidence of digestion on in situ lower molars of the major prey species, Mystromys albicaudatus, indicates that one of the owls Tyto alba, T. capensis or Asio capensis was the responsible predator. Over-emphasis on riverine grassland supports this suggestion, as does faunal resemblance between the Sterkfontein Valley samples and modern prey samples for the three owl species concerned. The location of the roost and the range of prey species point to the barn owl T. alba. There is no indication of differential bias between samples. South African species of eagle owl (Bubo spp.) are ruled out.All samples appear to represent interglacial conditions. The Grassland—Savanna ecotone probably lay nearby, as did the border between Moist and Arid Savanna. Possible modern analogues occur about 200km west and southwest of the valley more than 250m lower in altitude. South of Mafikeng all three vegetation types intergrade but the rainfall is higher than that postulated for some of the units in the Sterkfontein Valley. Similar climatic conditions occur near Kuruman and Kimberley where Arid Savanna merges into Grassland. Landscape information indicates a succession from riverine grassland, sometimes withAcacia trees, through hillsides with bush, grass and some trees, to plains with open savanna woodland. The suggested climate for the Sterkfontein Valley varied between ±310mm and possibly 550mm mean annual precipitation, summer aridity index 3·8–4·1 and percentage winter rainfall 23–24. Minimum and maximum monthly temperatures would have been higher than they are today but with the temperature range reduced.

The Earliest Stone Age Occupation of Eastern Middle Sweden

This paper presents a research project on the earliest Mesolithic settlement in eastern middle Sweden. Preliminary results from the excavations of four sites are discussed within the framework of the concepts ”paleoenvironment", "natural landscape" and "cultural landscape". The benefit from considering the natural landscape as a result of cultural classification within unique cultural contexts is discussed, and some strategies for future research are introduced.

Archaeological Investigations at two Lesotho Rock-shelters: Terminal Pleistocene/Early Holocene Assemblages from Ha Makotoko and Ntloana Tsoana

Results of the excavation of two rock-shelters in the Phuthiatsana-ea-Thaba Bosiu Basin of western Lesotho, southern Africa are reported. Later Stone Age occupation at both sites was principally a feature of the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene. Analysis of the artefact assemblages shows that, while all in situ occurrences belong to the Oakhurst Industrial Complex, significant differences are apparent between those pre- and post-dating 7500 BC. A shift towards hunting smaller bovids and changes in site occupation at the regional scale are also evident at this time. Differences between the archaeological signatures at the two sites are discussed in the light of recent models of seasonal aggregation and dispersal. Comparisons are drawn with the archaeological record of neighbouring parts of South Africa and a strong contrast is suggested between terminal Pleistocene! early Holocene settlement strategies and those of the recent Holocene within the research area.

Structuring the Late Stone Age of Southeastern Arabia

This paper treats the classification of a number of facies in the Late Stone Age of Southeastern Arabia. The basis for this classification is a selection of substantial find complexes of chipped stone artifacts from sites located along the coast of Oman. Human occupation in the region dates to the beginning of the Holocene, but insufficient material is available for the first quarter of the post‐Pleistocene era. At the beginning of the second quarter of the Holocene, we find a relatively undifferentiated stone tool‐using facies (Wadi‐Wutayya‐Facies) which was appar‐ ently contemporary with the Qatar B blade‐arrowhead horizon in the interior of the Oman peninsula. Early in the 5th millennium BC, the Wadi‐Wutayya‐Facies was superseded by the Saruq‐Facies which can be seen as a local variant of the “Arabian bifacial tradition”. The high point in the Late Stone Age occupation of the coast was reached early in the 4th millennium BC when various local facies can be distinguished. These include the Ra's‐al‐Hamra‐Facies in the central coastal zone around Muscat and the Bir‐Bira‐Facies in the area around Sur. This phase, which was characterized particularly by the formation of shell middens, seems to have lasted only about 500 years. An essentially aceramic occupation on the coast of the Gulf of Oman, called the Bandar‐Jissa‐Facies, represents the final phase in the classification of Late Stone Age occupation outlined here. This facies was characterized by the use of a simple stone tool industry alongside of metal artifacts, and was contemporary with the Early Bronze age occupation of the southern and southwestern flanks of the Oman mountains. Information on categories of finds other than chipped stone, particularly those made of groundstone and shell, as well as observations on the economic and environmental history of the periods discussed, complement the study of the stone tool industries and form the basis for an outline of the history of Southeastern Arabia in the second quarter of the post‐glacial era.

Dating, archaeology and human fossils from the Middle Stone Age levels of Die Kelders, South Africa

Die Kelders Cave 1, on the southwestern coast of South Africa, preserves a rich Later Stone Age (LSA) occupation and a thick series of Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers below. Limited excavation of the MSA layers has yielded numerous lithic artifacts and faunal remains, and nine human teeth. Sedimentologial and faunal evidence suggests that the MSA levels accumulated under comparatively cool, mesic conditions, probably at the beginning of the Last Glaciation (isotope stage 4). The MSA artifact assemblage consists overwhelmingly of quartzite débitage. Elongate flakes are fairly common; systematic retouch is extremely rare. The high frequency of silcrete artifacts in some of the lower units may signal the Howiesons Poort variant of the MSA, although diagnostic backed and truncated pieces are absent. The animal bones come from rodents, insectivores and other small creatures that were probably introduced mainly by owls, as well as from larger mammals and seabirds that were probably introduced mainly by humans. This latter component resembles the Klasies River Mouth MSA fauna in the abundance of eland relative to wild pigs, the dominance of penguins over flying birds, and the absence of fish. At both Die Kelders and Klasies River Mouth these features tentatively suggest that MSA hunter-foragers exploited animal resources less effectively than their LSA successors. Although the Die Kelders MSA human teeth tend to be somewhat larger, they are morphologically similar to modern African homologues, and they exhibit several features that tend to distinguish modern Africans among other populations. These teeth may be added to the small fossil sample that attests to the morphological modernity of the MSA inhabitants of southern Africa.

Later Stone Age Burial Variability in the Cape: A Social Interpretation

Burial complexes from mid- to late Holocene Later Stone Age occupations atKlasiesRiverMouth Cave Sand Welgeluk Shelterare described and analysed. The data indicate thatthe expected relationship between increasing age, status and grave good 'wealth'does not always hold and some inversion of this expectation is visible in that the very young and juveniles received more ritual elaboration of burials than olderpeople. In addition, the greater degree of ritual elaboration in the Klasies burials is interpreted as an explicit social display during a period of stress brought about through higher population densities and the consequent strain this placed upon inter-group relationships. The less elaborate Welgeluk burials reflect lower population densities within the more maiginal eastern Cape environment. The social institution of hxaro provides the ethnographic basis for these interpretations.

Recent Archaeological Research and Dates from West Africa

This article reports over 250 new radiocarbon dates relevant to recent archaeological research in West Africa. Thanks to the continuing trend towards series of dates from either single sites or groups of related sites, some major blanks on the archaeological map of West Africa have been replaced by well-dated regional sequences. An example is the Malian Sahara, where palaeoenvironmental and archaeological investigations at a large number of sites have clarified the relationship between Holocene climatic change and Late Stone Age occupation. Other areas that were largely archaeological unknowns until the research reported in this article was undertaken include the middle Senegal valley, the Inland Niger Delta, and the Bassar region in Togo. Other research included here reinterprets previously studied, ‘classic’ Late Stone Age sequences, such as Adrar Bous, Kintampo and Tichitt. There are also new dates and details for early copper in Niger and Mauritania which prompt a reconsideration of the true nature of this proposed ‘Copper Age’. Of particular significance to general reconstructions of West African prehistory is the documentation of regional and long-distance trade accompanying the emergence of complex societies along the Middle Senegal and Middle Niger in the first millennium A.D.The article begins with a brief commentary on calibration, in view of the recent publication of high-precision calibration curves. Several prevalent misconceptions of what calibration is and what it ought to do are addressed. We suggest that archaeologists and historians should routinely make reference to calibration in order to avoid misinterpreting radiocarbon results.