Task Stimuli Research Articles

Adults perceive similar ultra-processed and minimally processed foods as having different levels of healthfulness: Development of stimuli for an ultra-processed food-related implicit association task.

Background: Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption is excessive across the United States (US). Understanding perceptions of food based on processing is critical to elucidate reasons for UPF intake and inform tool development for measuring related cognition. Aim: Design and evaluate perceptions of UPF and non-UPF food among general US adults. Hypothesis: Significant differences exist in perceived healthfulness across similar UPF and non-UPF foods. Methods: Photographs of foods were taken to represent eight pairs of similar UPFs and non-UPFs and presented in a Qualtrics survey with questions to gauge healthfulness from 0 to 10 (0 = completely unhealthy, 10 = completely healthy). Paired-samples sign tests were used to detect differences in ratings within pairs. Results: Participants (n = 100) rated stimuli within all pairs significantly differently (P < 0.001), indicating different perceptions of UPF and non-UPF. Conclusion: Adults perceive similar UPF and non-UPF as having different levels of healthfulness. Reasons for these differences warrant investigation.

Fixation patterns in pairs of facial expressions-preferences of self-critical individuals.

So far, studies have revealed some differences in how long self-critical individuals fixate on specific facial expressions and difficulties in recognising these expressions. However, the research has also indicated a need to distinguish between the different forms of self-criticism (inadequate or hated self), the key underlying factor in psychopathology. Therefore, the aim of the current research was to explore fixation patterns for all seven primary emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, contempt, anger, and surprise) and the neutral face expression in relation to level of self-criticism by presenting random facial stimuli in the right or left visual field. Based on the previous studies, two groups were defined, and the pattern of fixations and eye movements were compared (high and low inadequate and hated self). The research sample consisted of 120 adult participants, 60 women and 60 men. We used the Forms of Self-Criticizing and Self-Reassuring Scale to measure self-criticism. As stimuli for the eye-tracking task, we used facial expressions from the Umeå University Database of Facial Expressions database. Eye movements were recorded using the Tobii X2 eye tracker. Results showed that in highly self-critical participants with inadequate self, time to first fixation and duration of first fixation was shorter. Respondents with higher inadequate self also exhibited a sustained pattern in fixations (total fixation duration; total fixation duration ratio and average fixation duration)-fixation time increased as self-criticism increased, indicating heightened attention to facial expressions. On the other hand, individuals with high hated self showed increased total fixation duration and fixation count for emotions presented in the right visual field but did not differ in initial fixation metrics in comparison with high inadequate self group. These results suggest that the two forms of self-criticism - inadequate self and hated self, may function as distinct mechanisms in relation to emotional processing, with implications for their role as potential transdiagnostic markers of psychopathology based on the fixation eye-tracking metrics.

The Ramp protocol: Uncovering individual differences in walking to an auditory beat using TeensyStep

Intentionally walking to the beat of an auditory stimulus seems effortless for most humans. However, studies have revealed significant individual differences in the spontaneous tendency to synchronize. Some individuals tend to adapt their walking pace to the beat, while others show little or no adjustment. To fill this gap we introduce the Ramp protocol, which measures spontaneous adaptation to a change in an auditory rhythmic stimulus in a gait task. First, participants walk at their preferred cadence without stimulation. After several steps, a metronome is presented, timed to match the participant’s heel-strike. Then, the metronome tempo progressively departs from the participant’s cadence by either accelerating or decelerating. The implementation of the Ramp protocol required real-time detection of heel-strike and auditory stimuli aligned with participants’ preferred cadence. To achieve this, we developed the TeensyStep device, which we validated compared to a gold standard for step detection. We also demonstrated the sensitivity of the Ramp protocol to individual differences in the spontaneous response to a tempo-changing rhythmic stimulus by introducing a new measure: the Response Score. This new method and quantification of spontaneous response to rhythmic stimuli holds promise for highlighting and distinguishing different profiles of adaptation in a gait task.

Rapid formation of picture-word association in cats

It is well known that dogs are capable of following human verbal instructions. However, very little is known about the equivalent ability in cats. In this study, we used a switched stimuli task to examine whether cats rapidly form picture-word association, which is a fundamental ability for word learning. We presented cats with two meaningless picture-word combinations, in the habituation phase. Then, on half of the trials we switched the combination (switched condition), but the other half of the trials remained as before (non-switched condition). If cats rapidly form picture-word association, they were expected to look at the monitor for longer in the switched condition, reflecting detection of the change. We used human speech as stimuli in Exp.1, and mechanical sounds (electronic sounds) in Exp.2. Cats expressed detection of the switched combination in Exp.1, where human speech and objects were paired. However, in Exp.2 where non-social sounds and objects were paired, there was no statistical difference between switched and non-switched conditions, although there was a main effect of condition when the data from the two experiments were pooled. These results demonstrate that cats can rapidly form picture-word association. Further research should investigate whether domestication has played a role in this ability.

A comparison of vibrotactile patterns in an early warning system for obstacle detection using a haptic vest

Technical devices can enhance safety by warning people of unrecognized obstacles, particularly in traffic, wilderness, and industrial settings. This study aims to identify the most effective vibrotactile stimuli for localization tasks by developing and evaluating various types of vibrotactile alerts presented through a tactile vest with visual patterns. The study design involved comparing the time and consistency of interpreting visual stimuli and subsequent tactile stimuli. The tactile stimuli included: a ’point’ vibration on the left or right side of the back, a ’column’ pattern of five vibrations on one side of the back, and a ’wave’ pattern of vibrations running along the back from left to right or vice versa. The results indicated that reaction times to visual stimuli were significantly shorter than to vibration stimuli, suggesting that visual stimuli are suitable for alert systems with low cognitive load. The ’point’ and ’column’ patterns were recognized significantly faster and more clearly than the’wave’ pattern. Consequently, the haptic vest was classified as a potentially effective low cognitive load device in localization performance. The findings could inform the design of early warning systems for obstacle detection in real traffic situations.

Effects of Sleep Quality, Acute Sleep Deprivation, and Napping on Facial Emotion Recognition Accuracy and Speed.

To investigate the effects of sleep quality, sleep deprivation, and napping on facial emotion recognition (FER) accuracy and speed. This research included a cross-sectional study (102 qualified participants) and a randomized controlled study (26 in the napping group and 24 in the control group). The stimuli for the FER task were obtained from the Chinese Facial Affective Picture System (CFAPS). Four facial expressions (fearful, disgusted, sad, and angry) were used. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, and Self-Rating Depression Scale were used to measure participants' sleep quality and psychological conditions. In Study 1, FER ability was compared between good and poor sleepers. In Study 2, all participants were sleep-deprived for one night, and completed the FER task before and after sleep deprivation. After different interventions (ie, napping for one hour, or walking around for ten minutes), the participants completed the third FER task. Study 1: Poor sleepers were able to recognize sad expressions more accurately compared with good sleepers. Study 2: 30-h sleep deprivation had no significant effect on the accuracy (ACC). Napping after sleep deprivation improved the FER ACC of upper-face expressions and marginally significantly improved the FER ACC of disgusted expressions. Better sleep quality was linked to lower FER accuracy, particularly in recognizing sad expressions, while no significant differences in recognition speed were observed. Additionally, 30hours of sleep deprivation did not affect FER accuracy, but napping after sleep deprivation improved accuracy for upper-face and marginally for disgusted expressions.

Task-guided attention increases non-linearity of steady-state visually evoked potentials

Objective.Attention is a multifaceted cognitive process, with nonlinear dynamics playing a crucial role. We investigated the involvement of nonlinear processes in top-down visual attention.Approach.The research paradigm employed a contrast-modulated sequence of letters and numerals, encircled by a consistently flickering white square on a black background-a setup that generated steady-state visually evoked potentials. Nonlinear processes are recognized for eliciting and modulating the harmonics of constant frequencies. Using the rhythmic entrainment source separation technique, we examined the fundamental and harmonic frequencies of each stimulus to evaluate the underlying nonlinear dynamics during stimulus processing.Main results.In line with prior research, our findings indicate that the power spectrum density of electroencephalogram responses is influenced by both task presence and stimulus contrast. We discovered that actively searching for a target within a letter stream heightened the amplitude of the fundamental frequency and harmonics related to the background flickering stimulus. While the fundamental frequency amplitude remained unaffected by the stimulus contrast, a lower contrast led to an increase in the second harmonic's amplitude. We assessed the relationship between the contrast response function and the nonlinear-based harmonic responses.Significance.Our findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the nonlinear processes impacting top-down visual attention.

Examining Food-Specific and General Inhibitory Control and Working Memory as Moderators of Relations Between Emotion Regulation Difficulties and Eating Pathology in Adults With Overweight/Obesity: A Preregistered, Cross-Sectional Study.

Empirical research and theory support the interaction of executive functions (e.g., inhibitory control, working memory) and emotion regulation in guiding goal-oriented behavior; however, applications to eating pathology (e.g., binge eating) are limited. Such research is scant with adults with overweight/obesity (AwO/O), a population reporting high levels of binge eating, emotion regulation difficulties, and deficits in inhibitory control and working memory. We tested interactions between emotion regulation and executive functioning in relation to eating pathology in AwO/O while considering stimuli-specific deficits (e.g., food-specific deficits) in behavioral task performance. AwO/O (N = 204; MBMI = 32.11; Mage = 38.30 [SD = 12.16]) completed a preregistered, online study assessing demographics and emotion regulation difficulties (Difficulties in Emotional Regulation Scale), inhibitory control (go/no-go task, food and general stimuli), working memory (N-Back Task, food and general stimuli), binge eating (Binge Eating Scale), and disordered eating (Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire). There was limited evidence of moderation in models examining food-specific and general inhibitory control and working memory, emotion regulation difficulties, and binge eating. Preliminary support was found for emotion regulation difficulties to be more strongly associated with more disordered eating in AwO/O reporting more food-specific and general working memory deficits. Consistent, positive associations between emotion regulation difficulties and eating pathology were observed. Among adults with AwO/O, emotion regulation difficulties are closely related to eating pathology, regardless of performance on working memory and inhibitory control tasks. Clinicians and researchers working with AwO/O may consider how emotion regulation difficulties and working memory deficits work together to influence disordered eating.

Time-on-task-related decrements in performance in the rodent continuous performance test are not caused by physical disengagement from the task.

Attention deficits, a hallmark of many neuropsychiatric disorders, significantly impair quality of life and functional outcome for patients. Continuous Performance Tests (CPTs) are widely used to assess attentional function in clinical settings and have been adapted for mice as the rodent Continuous Performance Test (rCPT). In this study, we combined traditional analyses of rCPT performance with markerless pose estimation using DeepLabCut and visual field analysis (VFA) to objectively measure the orientation of mice toward stimuli during rCPT sessions. Additionally, we extended session lengths to assess performance decrements over time. Our findings show that extending rCPT sessions from 45 to 90 minutes results in a significant decline in performance in male mice, which aligns with performance decrements observed in clinical research. Importantly, physical engagement with the task remained relatively stable throughout the session, even as performance deteriorated. This suggests that the performance decline specifically reflects a time-on-task (TOT)-dependent vigilance decrement rather than physical disengagement. We also investigated the effects of amphetamine, an FDA-approved treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), on rCPT performance. Amphetamine significantly improved rCPT performance in male mice by reducing false alarms without modulating orientation or physical engagement with the task stimuli. Collectively, these findings validate a behavioral tracking platform for objectively measuring physical engagement in the rCPT and a task modification that accentuates TOT-dependent performance decrements, enhancing the translational value of the rCPT for studies related to human neuropsychiatric disorders.

Investigating the Relationship between Balanced Composition and Aesthetic Judgment through Computational Aesthetics and Neuroaesthetic Approaches

Background: Symmetry is a special kind of balance. This study aims to systematically explore and apply the role of balanced composition in aesthetic judgments by focusing on balanced composition features and employing research methods from computational aesthetics and neuroaesthetics. Methods: First, experimental materials were classified by quantifying balanced composition using several indices, including symmetry, center of gravity, and negative space. An EEG experiment was conducted with 18 participants, who were asked to respond dichotomously to the same stimuli under different judgment tasks (balance and aesthetics), with both behavioral and EEG data being recorded and analyzed. Subsequently, participants’ data were combined with balanced composition indices to construct and analyze various SVM classification models. Results: Participants largely used balanced composition as a criterion for aesthetic evaluation. ERP data indicated that from 300–500 ms post-stimulus, brain activation was more significant in the aesthetic task, with unbeautiful and imbalanced stimuli eliciting larger frontal negative waves and occipital positive waves. From 600–1000 ms, beautiful stimuli caused smaller negative waves in the PZ channel. The results of the SVM models indicated that the model incorporating aesthetic subject data (ACC = 0.9989) outperforms the model using only balanced composition parameters of the aesthetic object (ACC = 0.7074). Conclusions: Balanced composition is a crucial indicator in aesthetics, with similar early processing stages in both balance and aesthetic judgments. Multi-modal data models validated the advantage of including human factors in aesthetic evaluation systems. This interdisciplinary approach not only enhances our understanding of the cognitive and emotional processes involved in aesthetic judgments but also enables the construction of more reasonable machine learning models to simulate and predict human aesthetic preferences.

The effect of performance contingent reward prospects flexibly adapts to more versus less specific task goals.

In some situations, for example, when we expect to gain a reward in case of good performance, goal-driven top-down attention is particularly strong. Little is known about the task specificity of such increases of top-down attention due to environmental factors. To understand to what extent performance-contingent reward prospects can result in specific and unspecific changes in cognitive processing, we here investigate reward effects under different levels of task specification. Thirty-two participants performed a visual or an auditory discrimination task cued by two consecutive visual stimuli: First, a reward cue indicated if good performance was rewarded. Second, a task cue announced either which of the two tasks would follow (precise cue) or that both tasks would follow equally likely (imprecise cue). Reward and task cue preciseness both significantly improved performance. Moreover, the response time difference between precisely and imprecisely cued trials was significantly stronger in rewarded than in unrewarded trials. These effects were reflected in event-related potential (ERP) slow wave amplitudes: Reward and preciseness both significantly enhanced the contingent negative variation (CNV) prior to the task stimulus. In an early CNV time interval, both factors also showed an interaction. A negative slow wave prior to the task cue was also significantly enhanced for rewarded trials. This effect correlated with the reward difference in response times. These results indicate that reward prospects trigger task-specific changes in preparatory top-down attention which can flexibly adapt over time and across different task requirements. This highlights that a reward-induced increase of cognitive control can occur on different specificity levels.

Number and domain both affect the relation between executive function and mathematics achievement: A study of children's executive function with and without numbers.

Magnitude processing and executive functions (EFs) have emerged as robust predictors of mathematics achievement. However, the nature of these associations is still unclear. For example, it is uncertain if EFs applied in the context of domain-specific mathematical cognition (i.e., EFs applied while processing numbers) are more closely related to mathematics achievement than EFs applied in nonnumerical, domain-general contexts. Also, how distinct EF domains-that is, working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility-and contents-that is, numerical versus nonnumerical-moderate the association between magnitude processing and mathematics achievement has not been fully understood. To address these issues, we investigated how magnitude processing, EFs applied to nonnumerical and numerical task stimuli, and their interactions were associated with mathematics achievement. Three hundred fifty-nine Brazilian third- to fifth-grade (8-10 years old) students completed measures of working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility with numerical and nonnumerical task versions, nonsymbolic and symbolic magnitude comparison, and mathematics achievement. A series of regression models indicated that nonsymbolic and symbolic magnitude processing are consistently associated with mathematics achievement, even when controlling for working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility measured with both numerical and nonnumerical contents. All EF measures were associated with mathematics achievement. However, cognitive flexibility measured with numerical content showed the strongest association. Results support the hypothesis that magnitude processing and EFs are uniquely associated with mathematics achievement. Furthermore, EFs measured with nonnumerical and numerical contents related differently to mathematics achievement, even when controlling for symbolic and nonsymbolic magnitude processing, suggesting they encompass somewhat distinct cognitive processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Multi-Frequency Entropy for Quantifying Complex Dynamics and Its Application on EEG Data.

Multivariate entropy algorithms have proven effective in the complexity dynamic analysis of electroencephalography (EEG) signals, with researchers commonly configuring the variables as multi-channel time series. However, the complex quantification of brain dynamics from a multi-frequency perspective has not been extensively explored, despite existing evidence suggesting interactions among brain rhythms at different frequencies. In this study, we proposed a novel algorithm, termed multi-frequency entropy (mFreEn), enhancing the capabilities of existing multivariate entropy algorithms and facilitating the complexity study of interactions among brain rhythms of different frequency bands. Firstly, utilizing simulated data, we evaluated the mFreEn's sensitivity to various noise signals, frequencies, and amplitudes, investigated the effects of parameters such as the embedding dimension and data length, and analyzed its anti-noise performance. The results indicated that mFreEn demonstrated enhanced sensitivity and reduced parameter dependence compared to traditional multivariate entropy algorithms. Subsequently, the mFreEn algorithm was applied to the analysis of real EEG data. We found that mFreEn exhibited a good diagnostic performance in analyzing resting-state EEG data from various brain disorders. Furthermore, mFreEn showed a good classification performance for EEG activity induced by diverse task stimuli. Consequently, mFreEn provides another important perspective to quantify complex dynamics.

Culture-specific heritage language vocabulary and collective identity among three generations of Mountain Jews

ABSTRACT Culture-specific vocabulary denotes objects that bear cultural weight and are not readily translatable or understood in other languages. The present study explores cultural items in an endangered language, Juhuri (Judeo-Tat), the traditional language of Mountain Jews (MJ) who immigrated to Israel and the United States. A set of ten items, five cultural and five neutral, served as stimuli for a picture recognition task inserted in a questionnaire distributed to MJs from three generations (G1, G1.5, and G2). In addition, participants rated their ethnocultural and national identities and their level of Juhuri proficiency. Results yielded significantly better recognition of culture-specific over neutral items by G1.5 and G2 participants, but no difference among more proficient G1 participants. Regression analyses revealed a significant effect of MJ identity on the recognition of cultural items. Neither Israeli nor American national background had an effect on the recognition of either cultural or neutral items. The findings shed light on the role of ethnocultural identity in the recognition of culture-specific vocabulary. Results are discussed in terms of research on heritage language maintenance and shift, identity, and the status of the MJ community in both countries.

Associations between attention and threat in dental settings

Dental fear still causes health risks and high costs for health insurances due to the common avoidance of dental visits by dentally fearful patients. Selective attention may be a potential trigger of dental fear. The aim of the present studies was to investigate the influence of threatening dental stimuli in image combinations on the performance in a visual search task. In three studies, we compared the influence of dental stimuli with pictures of weapons or accidents and different distractors, i.e., cutlery, animals, landscapes. In the first two studies, participants had to decide if a target is available in a 3 × 3 matrix or not. In the third experiment, participants had to decide if a threatening or a neutral stimulus was the target. In all three studies we could replicate the finding that there is a threat-superiority-effect as well as a disengagement-effect for dental stimuli in visual search tasks. Dental stimuli were not only detected faster than deciding that no dental stimulus is available with different distractors, but dental stimuli also decreased search performance within the 3 × 3 matrices when presented as distractors. This is the first paper that demonstrates that dental stimuli that are associated with a negative threatening valence attract attention very quickly in the context of non-threatening stimuli. Future studies should investigate if a distraction from these threatening stimuli or a habituation to these threatening stimuli could reduce dental fear.

Examining the lateralization of electrophysiological correlates of auditory awareness.

The neurological basis for perceptual awareness remains unclear, and theories disagree as to whether sensory cortices per se generate awareness. Critically, neural activity in the sensory cortices is only a neural correlate of consciousness (NCC) if it closely matches the contents of perceptual awareness. Research in vision and touch suggest that contralateral activity in sensory cortices is an NCC. Similarly, research in hearing with two sound sources (left and right) presented over headphones also suggests that a candidate NCC called the auditory awareness negativity (AAN) matches perceived location of sound. The current study used 13 different sound sources presented over loudspeakers for natural localization cues and measured event-related potentials to a threshold stimulus in a sound localization task. Preregistered Bayesian mixed models provided moderate evidence against an overall AAN and very strong evidence against its lateralization. Because of issues regarding data quantity and quality, exploratory analyses with aggregated data from multiple loudspeakers were conducted. Results provided moderate evidence for an overall AAN and strong evidence against its lateralization. Nonetheless, the interpretations of these results remain inconclusive. Therefore, future research should reduce the number of conditions and/or test over several sessions to procure a sufficient amount of data. Taken at face value, the results may suggest issues with AAN as an NCC of auditory awareness, as it does not laterally map onto experiences in a free-field auditory environment, in contrast to the NCCs of vision and touch.

Effects of Presentation Side and Emotional Valence on Auditory Recognition in Younger and Older Adults

(1) Background: It is well-established that older persons compared with younger persons show a bias toward positive valence (a positivity effect), together with less pronounced hemispheric asymmetries, but these topics have been scarcely explored in auditory modality. (2) Methods: We presented auditory stimuli with positive, neutral, or negative emotional valence dichotically to 20 younger and 20 older participants and asked them to memorize the stimuli. In a following session, stimuli were presented binaurally, and participants had to decide whether they were new or already presented in the left/right ear. (3) Results: A higher performance by younger compared with older listeners emerged, but neither the expected Right Ear Advantage nor the positivity effect was confirmed. New stimuli were correctly categorized more frequently if they had neutral valence, whereas stimuli already presented were better recognized with negative rather than neutral or positive valence, without any age difference. (4) Conclusions: These results reveal no hemispheric asymmetries and no age difference in a memory task for auditory stimuli and suggest the existence of a bias to better encode negative content, possibly due to the crucial role of negative stimuli in everyday life.

Intact Serial Dependence in Schizophrenia: Evidence from an Orientation Adjustment Task

Abstract Background and Hypothesis For a long time, it was proposed that schizophrenia (SCZ) patients rely more on sensory input and less on prior information, potentially leading to reduced serial dependence—ie, a reduced influence of prior stimuli in perceptual tasks. However, existing evidence is constrained to a few paradigms, and whether reduced serial dependence reflects a general characteristic of the disease remains unclear. Study Design We investigated serial dependence in 26 SCZ patients and 27 healthy controls (CNT) to evaluate the influence of prior stimuli in a classic visual orientation adjustment task, a paradigm not previously tested in this context. Study Results As expected, the CNT group exhibited clear serial dependence, with systematic biases toward the orientation of stimuli shown in the preceding trials. Serial dependence in SCZ patients was largely comparable to that in the CNT group. Conclusions These findings challenge the prevailing notion of reduced serial dependence in SCZ, suggesting that observed differences between healthy CNT and patients may depend on aspects of perceptual or cognitive processing that are currently not understood.

Electrophysiological Correlates of Amplified Emotion-Related Cognitive Processing Evoked by Self-Administered Disgust Images.

In the processing of emotions, the brain prepares and reacts in distinctive manners depending upon the negative or positive nuance of the emotion elicitors. Previous investigations showed that negative elicitors generally evoke more intense neural activities than positive and neutral ones, as reflected in the augmented amplitude of all sub-components of the event-related potentials (ERP) late posterior positivity (LPP) complex, while less is known about the emotion of disgust. The present study aimed to examine whether the LPP complex during the processing of disgust stimuli showed greater amplitude than other emotion elicitors with negative or positive valences, thus confirming it as a neural marker of disgust-related negativity bias at earlier or later stages. Thus, in the present study, we leveraged the ERP technique during the execution of an affective self-administered visual stimuli task to disentangle the neural contributions associated with images of positive, negative, disgust, or neutral emotions. Crucially, we showed that handling with disgust elicitors prompted the greatest neural activity and the highest delay during self-administration. Overall, we demonstrated progressive neural activities associated with the unpleasantness of the emotion elicitors and peculiar processing for disgust compared with all other emotions.

The temporal dynamics of task processing and choice in a novel multitasking paradigm.

This study investigated the temporal dynamics of task performance and voluntary task choice within a multitasking paradigm in which the task-related processing outcomes themselves determined the to-be-performed task. In the novel forced-no-go trials, the stimulus for one task required an overt response, but the stimulus for the other task was associated with a no-go response. Task performance results showed that participants often processed the no-go task's stimulus before switching to the go-task. Dual-task interference effects and switch costs indicated various forms of multitasking interference, with their underlying causes appearing to overlap, as engagement in parallel processing seemed to be limited by switch-related reconfiguration processes. Intermixing free-choice trials, where both stimuli were associated with overt responses, revealed costs associated with switching between processing modes, providing new evidence that the distinctions between free and forced task goals stem from differences in their internal representations rather than alterations in processing due to different presentations in the environment. Task choice results align with this perspective, demonstrating a preference for repeating a free- over a forced-choice task. Furthermore, these free-choice results illuminate the interplay of cognitive (task-repetition bias) and environmental constraints (first-task bias) in shaping task choices: It appears that task-specific information increases goal activations for both task goals concurrently, with participants favoring central processing of the second- over the first-presented task to optimize their behavior when shorter central processing is required (task repetition). Overall, this study offers new insights into the dynamics of task processing and choice in environments requiring the balance of multiple tasks.